Finals

Stress & Faults

What is stress?

Stress is a force that changes the shape of Earth’s crust by pushing, pulling, or twisting rocks.

3 Types of Stress

  • Tension Stress → pulls crust apart → crust gets thinner

    • Happens at divergent boundaries

    • Example: ← →

  • Compression Stress → squeezes crust together → crust folds or breaks

    • Happens at convergent boundaries

    • Example: →←

  • Shearing Stress → pushes rocks past each other in opposite directions

    • Happens at transform boundaries

    • Example: ⇄

All types of stress can cause earthquakes.

Faults

Normal Fault

  • Caused by tension stress

  • Forms at divergent boundaries

  • Hanging wall moves DOWN

  • Footwall stays higher

Reverse Fault

  • Caused by compression stress

  • Forms at convergent boundaries

  • Hanging wall moves UP

Strike-Slip Fault

  • Caused by shearing stress

  • Forms at transform boundaries

  • Rocks slide sideways past each other

  • No hanging wall or footwall because movement is horizontal

Folding & Mountains

Anticline vs Syncline

  • Anticline = fold bends UP

  • Syncline = fold bends DOWN

  • Both are caused by compression stress

Folded Mountains vs Plateaus

  • Folded Mountains = crust wrinkles and folds upward (FOLDS UPWARDS)

    • Example: Himalayas

  • Plateaus = large flat land pushed upward as one block

  • Both form from compression stress

Fault-Block Mountains

  • Form when crust is pulled apart by tension stress

  • One block rises (horst) and one sinks (graben/rift valley)

Earthquakes

What is an earthquake?

An earthquake happens when rocks suddenly break and move along a fault.

Focus vs Epicenter

  • Focus = where the earthquake starts underground

  • Epicenter = point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus

Seismic Waves

Seismic waves are energy waves from earthquakes.

Their speed and path depend on the material they travel through.

Types of Seismic Waves

P-Waves

  • Fastest → arrive first

  • Travel through solids and liquids

  • Push/pull motion

  • Cause least damage

S-Waves

  • Arrive second

  • Travel through solids only

  • Side-to-side motion

  • Cause strong shaking

Surface Waves

  • Slowest → arrive last

  • Move in rolling/circular motion

  • Cause the MOST damage

Measuring Earthquakes

Modified Mercalli Scale

  • Measures earthquake intensity

  • Based on people’s observations and damage

  • Scale: 1–12

  • Weakness: (depends on people, LOOK AT HIGHLIGHTED)

Richter Scale

  • Measures earthquake magnitude

  • Uses seismograph readings

  • Best for small/local earthquakes

  • Weakness: inaccurate for very large earthquakes (read above)

Moment Magnitude Scale

  • Measures total energy released

  • Most accurate for large earthquakes

Seismograph & Seismogram

Seismograph (NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH SEISOMGRAM)

A machine that detects earthquake vibrations.

Seismogram

The recording made by a seismograph showing strength and timing of waves.

Inertia

Objects resist changes in motion.
This helps the seismograph work because part of it stays still while the ground moves.

Earthquake Locations

Where do earthquakes happen most?

  • Along plate boundaries

  • Especially around the Ring of Fire

Ring of Fire

Area around the Pacific Ocean where many:

  • Earthquakes

  • Volcanoes
    occur because of plate movement and subduction.

Volcanoes

Magma vs Lava (KNOW THE DIFFERENCE)

  • Magma = molten rock underground

  • Lava = magma above ground

Where volcanoes form

Mostly along plate boundaries.

Volcanoes at Boundaries

  • Convergent: subducting plate melts → magma forms

  • Divergent: crust pulls apart → magma rises

Island Arc

A chain of volcanic islands formed when one oceanic plate subducts under another.

Hotspot

A place where hot mantle material rises through the crust.
Examples:

  • Hawaii

  • Yellowstone

  • Iceland

How Eruptions Happen

Gas trapped in magma forms bubbles as pressure decreases near the surface.
The bubbles expand and force magma out during an eruption.

Pyroclastic Flow

A mix of the following that moves fast i guess 

  • hot gas

  • ash

  • rock fragments
    NOT lava. Lava is what comes out of the volcano xd

Volcano Parts

  • Magma Chamber = underground storage of magma

  • Pipe = passage magma travels through

  • Vent = opening where lava exits

  • Lava Flow = flowing lava

  • Crater = bowl-shaped opening at top

PRETTY SELF EXPLANATORY NGL

Quiet vs Explosive Eruptions

Quiet Eruptions

  • Hot magma

  • Low silica

  • Runny lava

  • Forms shield volcanoes

Explosive Eruptions

  • Cooler magma

  • High silica

  • Thick/sticky lava traps gases

  • Forms:

    • composite volcanoes

    • cinder cone volcanoes

Volcano Activity Stages

  • Active = erupting or likely to erupt

  • Dormant = “sleeping” but may erupt later

  • Extinct = will not erupt again

Volcano Types

Shield Volcano

  • Quiet eruptions

  • Thin/runny lava

  • Wide with gentle slopes

Composite Volcano

  • Explosive + quiet eruptions

  • Layers of ash and lava

  • Tall and steep

Cinder Cone Volcano

  • Explosive eruptions

  • Made mostly of ash/cinders

  • Steep sides

Lava Plateau

Flat area built by many lava flows over time.

Caldera

A huge crater formed when a volcano collapses into an empty magma chamber.

Crater Lake

A lake that fills a caldera.

Magma Landforms

Volcanic Neck

Hardened magma inside a volcano pipe left exposed after erosion.

Dike vs Sill

  • Dike = vertical magma intrusion

  • Sill = horizontal magma intrusion

Dome Mountain

Magma pushes crust upward into a dome shape.

Batholith

Huge underground mass of cooled magma exposed by erosion.

Natural Resources

Natural Resource

Anything from Earth used by humans.
Can be:

  • living

  • nonliving

  • matter

  • energy

Material Resources

Used to make things or for food. Examples:

  • soil

  • plants

  • minerals

Energy Resources

Used for power. Examples:

  • fossil fuels

  • solar

  • wind

Nonrenewable Resources

Cannot be replaced quickly.
Examples:

  • coal

  • oil

  • minerals

Why fossil fuels are nonrenewable

They take millions of years to form.

Renewable Resources

Can be replaced naturally.

BUT some can still run out if overused.

Human Impacts

  • Offshore drilling pollutes oceans

  • Paper production causes:

    • deforestation

    • water pollution

    • habitat loss

Soil Formation Factors

  1. Rock type

  2. Climate

  3. Organisms

Freshwater Uses

  • Drinking

  • Farming

  • Manufacturing

Aqueduct

A structure that carries freshwater long distances.

Weather & Climate

Weather

Short-term atmospheric conditions.

Weather reports include:

  • temperature

  • humidity

  • wind

  • precipitation

Temperature

Measures how hot/cold something is.

Higher temperature = particles move faster.

Humidity

Amount of water vapor in the air.

Air Pressure

Force of air pushing on Earth.

Wind moves from:

  • HIGH pressure → LOW pressure

Pressure Systems

High Pressure

  • Air sinks

  • Clear skies

  • Calm weather

Low Pressure

  • Air rises

  • Clouds and rain

Air Mass & Front

  • Air Mass = large body of air with similar temperature/humidity

  • Front = boundary between air masses

Rain Shadow Effect

Mountains force moist air upward → rain falls on one side → dry climate on the other side.

Climate

Average weather over a long period of time.

Climate Graphs

  • Line graph = temperature

  • Bar graph = precipitation

Albedo

How much sunlight a surface reflects.

  • High albedo = cooler

  • Light colors = higher albedo

  • Dark colors = lower albedo

Factors Affecting Climate

Latitude

Closer to equator = warmer.

Prevailing Winds

Global wind patterns that move air and ocean currents.

Elevation

Higher elevation = cooler temperatures.

Near Water vs Inland

Near water:

  • milder temperatures

  • more precipitation

SOIL FORMATION

The following affects soil formation: climate, rock type, slope.

Climate Change Effects

  1. Melting glaciers & rising sea levels

  2. Droughts & desertification

  3. Species migration/extinction

  4. Stronger weather events (like hurricanes)

Carbon Capture

Technology that removes carbon dioxide from the air or emissions.

Space & Astronomy

Planet Types

Terrestrial Planets

Rocky planets:

  • Mercury

  • Venus

  • Earth

  • Mars

Gas Giants

  • Jupiter

  • Saturn

Ice Giants

  • Uranus

  • Neptune

Planets with No Moons

  • Mercury

  • Venus

Why Pluto Isn’t a Planet

It does not “clear its orbit,” so it is classified as a dwarf planet.

Space Objects

Moon

A natural satellite orbiting a planet.

longest month for the moon is the SYNODIC MOTH BECAUSE ITS FULL TO FULL

Asteroid

Rocky object orbiting the Sun.

Comet

Ice, dust, and rock with long orbits and tails.

Meteoroid / Meteor / Meteorite

  • Meteoroid = in space

  • Meteor = burning in atmosphere

  • Meteorite = hits Earth

Kuiper Belt & Oort Cloud

  • Kuiper Belt = beyond Neptune; contains dwarf planets and icy objects

  • Oort Cloud = far edge of solar system; source of comets

Moon Phases

New Moon

Moon appears dark.

Full Moon

Entire visible side is lit.

Crescent

Less than half lit.

Gibbous

More than half lit.

Waxing vs Waning

  • Waxing = illuminated part growing

  • Waning = illuminated part shrinking

Months

Sidereal Month

Moon completes one orbit around Earth:

  • ~27.3 days

Synodic Month

Moon completes all phases:

  • ~29.5 days

Supermoon vs Micromoon

  • Supermoon = closest full moon

  • Micromoon = farthest full moon

Earth’s Motion & Seasons

Rotation

Earth spinning on axis → day/night

Revolution

Earth orbiting Sun → one year

Least Seasonal Change

Near the equator.

Equinox

Equal day and night.

Solstice

Longest or shortest daylight of the year.

Space & Humans

Earth Protects Us With:

  • gravity

  • atmosphere

  • magnetosphere

Puffy Face in Space

Fluids move upward because there is little gravity.

Space Weakens:

  • muscles

  • bones

Radiation Can Cause:

  • cancer

  • cataracts

Stars

What are stars made of?

Hot plasma. Hydrogen, and helium gasses.

Why are stars round?

Gravity pulls material inward evenly.

Nuclear Fusion

Hydrogen combines into helium and releases energy/light.

Star Layers

From inside → outside:

  1. Core

  2. Radiative Zone

  3. Convective Zone

  4. Photosphere

Nebula & Protostar

  • Nebula = giant gas cloud where stars form

  • Protostar = early forming star

Star Death

Low-Mass Stars

Cool slowly into dark remnants. EXPANDS INTO A RED GIANt  AND THEN A WHITE DWARF

High-Mass Stars

Can explode in a:

  • supernova

Neutron Star

Dense leftover core after a supernova.

Black Hole

Forms when gravity becomes so strong that even light cannot escape.

Galaxies

What are galaxies?

Huge collections of:

  • stars

  • gas

  • dust

  • planets

Our Galaxy

The Milky Way. DUHHHHH

Types of Galaxies

Elliptical

  • Oval-shaped

  • Older stars

Spiral

  • Spiral arms

  • Younger stars in arms (like a mom galaxy holding all of their babies or sumthing)

  • Milky Way is spiral

Lenticular

  • Disk-shaped

  • No spiral arms

Irregular

  • No clear shape

  • Lots of gas and young stars

Earth Science Final — What You need  to Study :)

1. Stress, Faults, & Mountains

Study:

  • Definition of stress

  • 3 types of stress:

    • tension (outward)

    • compression (inward)

    • shearing (against each other; up and down)

  • Which plate boundaries match each stress type

  • Faults:

    • normal fault

    • reverse fault

    • strike-slip fault

  • Hanging wall vs footwall

  • Anticlines vs synclines

  • Folded mountains vs plateaus

  • Fault-block mountains

  • Horst & graben

Focus On:

  • Which stress forms each feature

  • Direction rocks move

2. Earthquakes

Study:

  • What causes earthquakes

  • Focus vs epicenter

  • Seismic waves

  • P-waves

  • S-waves

  • Surface waves

  • Order they arrive

  • Which waves travel through liquids

  • Which causes most damage

Also Study:

  • Modified Mercalli Scale

  • Richter Scale

  • Moment Magnitude Scale

  • Seismograph

  • Seismogram

  • Inertia

  • Ring of Fire

Most Important:

  • Wave differences

  • Earthquake scales comparison

3. Volcanoes

Study:

  • Magma vs lava

  • Where volcanoes form

  • Convergent vs divergent volcanoes

  • Hotspots

  • Island arcs

  • How eruptions happen (gas bubbles)

  • Pyroclastic flow

Volcano Structures:

  • magma chamber

  • pipe

  • vent

  • crater

  • lava flow

Volcano Types:

  • shield

  • composite

  • cinder cone

Know:

  • Quiet vs explosive eruptions

  • High silica vs low silica

  • Which volcano type forms from each eruption

Also Study:

  • dormant

  • active

  • extinct

  • caldera

  • crater lake

Magma Landforms:

  • volcanic neck

  • dike

  • sill

  • dome mountain

  • batholith

MOST IMPORTANT:

  • Volcano type characteristics

  • Quiet vs explosive eruptions

  • Volcano diagrams

4. Natural Resources

Study:

  • Natural resource definition

  • Material vs energy resources

  • Renewable vs nonrenewable resources

  • Why fossil fuels are nonrenewable

Examples:

  • fossil fuels

  • solar

  • wind

  • geothermal

  • biomass

Human Impact:

  • offshore drilling

  • paper production

  • Aral Sea

Also Know:

  • Aqueducts

  • Freshwater uses

  • Soil formation factors

  • Resource distribution

MOST IMPORTANT:

  • Renewable vs nonrenewable

  • Human environmental impacts

5. Weather & Climate

Study:

  • Weather vs climate

  • Temperature

  • Humidity

  • Air pressure

  • Wind movement

  • High-pressure systems

  • Low-pressure systems

  • Air masses

  • Fronts

  • Rain shadow effect

Climate:

  • Climate graphs

  • Albedo

  • Latitude

  • Prevailing winds

  • Elevation

  • Effects of nearby water

MOST IMPORTANT:

  • High vs low pressure systems

  • Climate vs weather

  • Rain shadow effect

  • Climate graph reading

6. Climate Change

Study:

  • 4 major effects:

    • melting glaciers

    • rising sea levels

    • drought/desertification

    • biosphere changes

  • Carbon capture

MOST IMPORTANT:

  • Effects of global warming

7. Solar System & Space

Study:

  • Terrestrial planets

  • Gas giants

  • Ice giants

  • Which planets have no moons

  • Why Pluto is not a planet

Space Objects:

  • asteroid

  • comet

  • meteoroid

  • meteor

  • meteorite

Locations:

  • Kuiper Belt

  • Oort Cloud

MOST IMPORTANT:

  • Planet classifications

  • Meteor/meteoroid/meteorite differences

8. Moon Phases & Earth’s Motion

Study:

  • Moon phases:

    • new

    • full

    • crescent

    • gibbous

  • Waxing vs waning

  • Sidereal vs synodic month

  • Supermoon vs micromoon

Earth Motion:

  • rotation

  • revolution

  • equinox

  • solstice

  • seasons

MOST IMPORTANT:

  • Moon phases

  • Rotation vs revolution

  • Equinox vs solstice

9. Space & Human Body

Study:

  • Why astronauts get puffy faces

  • Muscle loss

  • Bone density loss

  • Radiation effects

MOST IMPORTANT:

  • Effects of low gravity on the body

10. Stars

Study:

  • What stars are made of

  • Gravity forming stars

  • Nuclear fusion

  • Star system

  • Binary stars

Star Layers:

  1. Core

  2. Radiative zone

  3. Convective zone

  4. Photosphere

Also Study:

  • nebula

  • protostar

  • low-mass stars

  • high-mass stars

  • neutron stars

  • supernova

  • black holes

MOST IMPORTANT:

  • Nuclear fusion

  • Star life cycle

  • Black hole formation

11. Goonlaxies

i mean galaxies*

Study:

  • What galaxies are

  • Milky Way

  • Galaxy types:

    • elliptical

    • spiral

    • lenticular

    • irregular

MOST IMPORTANT:

  • Identifying galaxy types

BEST WAY TO STUDY FAST FOR THE FINAL

MEMORIZE THESE FIRST:

  1. Types of stress + boundaries

  2. Faults

  3. Seismic waves

  4. Volcano types

  5. Renewable vs nonrenewable

  6. Weather vs climate

  7. Moon phases

  8. Planet types

  9. Star life cycle

  10. Galaxy types