AP Human Geography - Unit 4 Review Notes

State vs. Nation

A state is a geographic area with:

• Permanent, defined borders.

• A sovereign government (control over domestic and international affairs).

• Recognition by other states.

A nation is a group of people with:

• Shared culture.

• Shared history.

• Shared homeland.

• A desire to govern themselves (self-determination).

Self-determination is the right or desire of a nation to self-govern. Nations often seek territorial control to protect their culture.

State = Government and Land. Nation = People with Shared Culture and History.

Political Entities

• Nation-State: A self-governing state with a relatively uniform population sharing a common language, culture, and history.

  • Often geographically compact and historically isolated, leading to national identity and cohesion.

  • Examples: Japan, Iceland, South Korea.

• Multinational State: A state with multiple nations within its borders, each with distinct identities and traditions.

  • Often has a dominant cultural group that controls the political, economic, and social systems.

  • Example: Canada (English and French linguistic groups).

• Multistate Nation: A nation that exists across multiple states.

  • Examples: Kurdish population (Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc.), Basques (Spain and France).

• Stateless Nation: A nation with a history of self-determination but no officially recognized state.

  • Lacks control over political boundaries, sovereign government, control over internal/external affairs, and recognition from other states.

  • Examples: Kurds, Basques.

• Autonomous Region: A region within a state that enjoys a certain level of independence; has its own government and self-rule over internal affairs.

  • The state has limited involvement in the region's affairs.

  • Example: Native American reservations in the United States.

• Semi-Autonomous Region: A region controlled by another state but granted a moderate degree of self-governance.

  • Some control over internal affairs, but the controlling state can intervene when necessary.

  • Example: Hong Kong (subject to the authority of the central government of China).

Historical Events and Political Processes

• Colonialism: Acquiring territories and settling there to exert political, economic, and social control.

• Imperialism: Growing a state or empire by exerting force over other nations to gain economic and political power without establishing settlement.

Colonialism and imperialism led to the diffusion of religions, languages, cultures, resources, and ideas. Colonizers often imposed their culture on the colonized, forcing adaptation.

Colonialism/imperialism contributed to the establishment of political boundaries, favoring the colonial ruler rather than reflecting local cultures.

• Berlin Conference: European powers colonized Africa and created boundaries based on longitude/latitude for their benefit, disregarding ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups.

  • Goal: Create states to benefit Europeans and extract resources.

  • Result: Colonies lacked infrastructure, education, and were dependent on European powers; newly formed states had diverse nations leading to conflict, civil wars, ethnic cleansing, and genocide.

• Spheres of Influence in China: European powers divided China, focusing on colonial interest instead of the local population.

• Decolonization: Colonies gaining independence from colonizers.

  • Occurred primarily after World War II in regions like Africa.

  • Newly independent colonies often remained dependent on former rulers.

  • Conflicts arose over land, resources, and political power due to colonial boundaries.

• Devolution: Transfer of political power from a central government to a regional government.

  • Example: UK - creation of Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly.

  • Can also involve the transfer of responsibilities or powers to existing sub-national governments.

Political Power and Territoriality

• Territoriality: Establishing and defending a specific geographic area; indicating ownership or occupation.

  • Expressed through nonverbal communication, control of boundaries, military intervention, promotion of political/economic systems, and regulation of activities.

• Neocolonialism: Indirect use of political, cultural, or economic power by more economically developed countries and multinational corporations to influence or control less economically developed countries.

  • Dominant countries/companies exploit weaker countries by extracting resources and wealth.

  • Multinational companies exploit low-cost labor markets or regions with lax regulations and low taxes.

  • Example: China's investments in African infrastructure through loans and Chinese companies. This puts African countries in debt to China, resulting in China gaining power over different countries in the region. These loans come with conditions that benefit China if the loans cannot be repaid. China hopes to create political alliances and benefit from the booming African economy as countries urbanize and be ex advance in the demographic transition model.

• Shatter Belt: Region caught between larger powers in conflict, subject to political, cultural, and economic pressures from external powers.

  • Examples: Eastern Europe during the Cold War, Korean War (splitting of North and South Korea).

• Choke Points: Geographic areas that must be passed to reach a destination.

  • Countries exert influence by stationing military forces, investing in infrastructure, or creating treaties to regulate control.

  • Examples: Panama Canal, Strait Of Hormuz, Suez Canal.

Political Boundaries

Boundaries are often defined, delimited, and demarcated:

• Define: Boundary line is agreed upon and set.

• Delimit: Boundary line is drawn on a map and physically marked.

• Demarcate: Boundary is marked with permanent physical markers (walls, signs).

Types of Boundaries:

• Geometric Boundary: Straight lines, following latitude and longitude.

  • Example: 49th parallel between Canada and the US.

• Antecedent Boundary: Existed before human settlement or cultural landscape.

  • Determined by local geography.

  • Example: Boundary between Argentina and Chile (mountain range).

• Relic Boundary: No longer officially recognized but still affects the cultural landscape.

  • Example: Berlin Wall.

• Superimposed Boundary: Created by an external power without considering local communities, ethnic groups, or linguistic characteristics.

  • Prioritizes foreign states' interests.

  • Example: Berlin Conference boundaries in Africa.

• Subsequent Boundary: Develops along with the development of the cultural landscape.

  • Example: Majority of Europe's boundaries.

• Consequent Boundary: Created to separate ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups.

  • Example: Border between Pakistan and India (religious differences), boundaries after the collapse of Yugoslavia (based on nations).

• Frontier: Geographic area where no state has direct power or control.

Functions of Boundaries:

• International Boundaries separate sovereign states and are established through treaties.

• Internal Boundaries separate regions within a state; established by the state's government to distribute power.

Boundary Disputes:

• Definitional: Over the interpretation of the original documents defining the boundary.

• Locational: Over the location of the boundary and ownership of the land.

• Operational: Over how to manage a boundary and handle issues that occur on it.

• Allocational: Over the use of what's on or in the boundary (natural resources).

UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea):

• Established in 1985, the international law of the sea was adopted in 1938.

• Territorial Waters: 12 nautical miles from shore; states set laws regulating passage.

• Contiguous Zone: 12-24 nautical miles; states enforce laws concerning pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration.

• Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): 24-200 nautical miles; states have sole right to natural resources.

• After 200 nautical miles is international waters.

States can take disputes to the International Court of Justice.

Internal Boundaries:

• Examples: US congressional districts, county boundaries, city boundaries, school districts, voting districts.

• Voting Districts: Geographic area organized for administering elections.

• Redistricting: Redrawing districts to reflect population changes after the census.

• Gerrymandering: Redistricting to favor one political party.

  • Cracking: Spreading like-minded voters across many districts to reduce their impact.

  • Packing: Stacking like-minded voters into a few districts, diminishing their ability to win other districts.

Gerrymandering can lead to unfair representation and weaken the democratic process.

Forms of Government

• Unitary State: Power concentrated with the national government, creating laws and policies for the state.

  • Often geographically smaller with a homogenous population.

  • Example: Many nation-states.

• Federal State: Power distributed between the national government and regional governments.

  • Used by states with a large geographic area, high diversity, or isolated populations.

  • Often multinational states.

Devolution

Transfer of political power from a central government to a regional government. Factors include:

• Physical Geography: Fragmented states (mountains, oceans, large area) lead to isolated populations and distinct cultures.

• Cultural Divisions: Ethnic groups with a history of self-determination may want more autonomy thus leading to ethnic separatism.

  • Ethnic Separatism: Identifying more with one's ethnic group than with the state and wanting more political power or separation.

  • Examples: Basques and Catalans in Spain, Kurds in the Middle East, Nigeria.

• Languages: Different languages can lead to identity class, like Belgium.

• Political Instability: High crime rates or terrorism.

• Economic and Social Inequalities: Disparities between different parts of a state.

• Government Corruption and Abuse: Ethnic cleansing.

• Irredentism: A movement by a nation to unite other parts of its nation that are located in another state's boundary.

Challenges to State Sovereignty:

• Technological Advancements: Easier to share information, leading to challenges for autocratic governments and increased democratization.

• Globalization: Countries need to consider the impact of their decisions on the global community.

• Supernational Organizations: Alliances of multiple countries working together to achieve common goals.

Types of Supernational Organizations:

• Political: Maintain political stability.

  • Examples: United Nations, African Union, North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

• Economic: Promote economic prosperity.

  • Examples: European Union, Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

• Environmental: Protect natural resources.

  • Examples: Arctic Council.

Joining supernational organizations results in surrendering some autonomy and sovereignty.

Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces

• Centrifugal Forces divide people, a state, or a group.

• Centripetal Forces unite people, a state, or a group.

Centrifugal Forces:

• Uneven economic and social development.

• Cultural differences (language, religion, stereotypes, discrimination).

• Political corruption.

Can lead to a Failed State: A state that no longer has a functioning government and loses authority.

Centripetal Forces:

• Patriotism.

• Economic and social opportunities for all citizens.

• Lack of corruption and discrimination.

• Shared history, language, and religion.

• Strong national government.