Study Notes on American Foreign Relations and World War II

Major Problems in American Foreign Relations and Japan

• Context: LaFeber discusses Tokyo's military invasions in Manchuria and China during the 1930s, positing these actions clashed with Washington's advocacy for Open Door capitalism.

• Roosevelt Administration's Stance:

  • Divided Response: Split between enforcing harsh sanctions and engaging in dialogue with Japan.
  • Final Decision: President Roosevelt opted for increased economic restrictions alongside modest aid to China to pressure Japan into retreating.
  • Consequences: Sanctions led Japan to strengthen its military operations in China, forge military alliances with Germany and Italy, and pursue more expansive imperial ambitions in Southeast Asia.
  • Extensive Sanctions: The most severe sanction included an embargo on oil, which heightened Japan’s military preparations for a broader Pacific War. This culminated in the attack on Pearl Harbor.

The Global Threat and the Case for War - Gerhard Weinberg

• U.S. Public Reaction to World War II:

  • Initial Sentiment: The U.S. leadership and public blamed Germany for the war and largely preferred Britain and France to win, desiring to stay disengaged from European conflict.
  • Evolving Views: Doubts arose regarding the Allies’ capacity to defeat Germany after early victories by Germany in Poland and Scandinavia in 1940.

• Roosevelt's Perspective:

  • Outlook: Unlike many contemporaries, Roosevelt had more optimism about an Allied victory and understood that Nazi Germany posed a worldwide threat, including to the Americas.
  • Proposed Actions: Sought neutrality law revisions to allow weapon sales to allies, believing Western powers were under-armed.
  • Political Challenges: Faced a divided Congress with isolationists versus interventionist factions, leading to debates on neutrality law revisions.
  • Cash and Carry: Ultimately passed a law allowing arms sales on a cash-and-carry basis—striking a balance between aiding the Allies and not directly entering the war.

• German Misperceptions:

  • Hitler’s Views on the U.S.: Underestimated U.S. military capabilities, believing internal divides would prevent effective mobilization against Germany, while simultaneously preparing for confrontation once Germany assured dominance in Europe.

Changes in U.S. Foreign Policy and Military Strategies

• U.S. Support for Allies:

  • Roosevelt's Aid Initiatives: Advocated for under-the-table support to ensure allies received necessary military materials.
  • Lend-Lease Program: An extensive appropriation for supporting Britain and the Allies emerged from financial discussions regarding Britain's monetary limitations.

• Military Presence and Strategy:

  • United States in Iceland: Deployment of U.S. troops to replace the British garrison marked a shift toward active military involvement in Europe.
  • Aid to the Soviet Union: As the peril with Japan grew, U.S. policy shifted to provide substantial assistance to the Soviet Union post-German invasion.
  • Navigating Relations with Japan: Tensions were managed through a strategy of maintaining negotiations with Japan to stall aggression while rearming against potential threats.

Japan’s Strategic Decisions Leading to War

• Japanese Military Strategy:

  • March to War: Early decisions to occupy key territories were rooted in necessity driven by perceived resource shortages due to U.S. embargoes.
  • Imperial Conference: Led to the decision for military action against the U.S. post Pearl Harbor, reflecting failed diplomatic efforts and misunderstandings about American resolve.

• The Pearl Harbor Attack:

  • Failing Strategies: The attack was predicated on strategic miscalculations that underestimated American resolve and capabilities following an unprovoked assault.
  • Consequences of War Decision: Japan misassumed that they would not face significant consequences leading to a united American effort for war, ultimately contributing to their defeat.

Economic Origins of the Pacific War - Walter LaFeber

• Roots of Conflict:

  • Invasion of Manchuria: Marked a significant turning point, where Japan sought self-sufficiency through military means amidst the Great Depression.
  • Dependency on Manchuria: Japan's heavy investments pointed to a militaristic drive fueled by economic need as exports fell drastically.

• Roosevelt's Policies:

  • Initial Economic Responses: Interventions aimed more at supporting China rather than economic retaliation against Japan.
  • Trade Relations: Negotiations increasingly took a confrontational turn amid Japanese military expansions alongside deteriorating U.S. interests in China.
  • Sanctions and Military Build-Up: U.S. efforts extended to military funding and building its naval capabilities, aiming to contain Japan’s expansion in Asia.

The Pivotal Moments Leading to War

• Escalation of Diplomatic Tensions:

  • Proposed Settlements: Time and again, Japanese proposals for peace were met with U.S. demands that would require Japanese withdrawal from occupied territories.
  • Final Offer and Rejection: Japan’s last diplomatic efforts aligned poorly with U.S. conditions, illustrating an impasse that would lead to conflict despite nominal agreements on peace.
  • Preparation for Pearl Harbor: Internal Japanese government assessments anticipated confrontation by Dec 1941, signaling their readiness to engage militarily despite the adverse strategic calculus.

• Trial for War: The decision-making processes within Japanese leadership revealed factionalism and a lack of consensus, leading to aggressive military action against perceived threats.

• Outcome: The previously nuanced balance between economic necessities and international diplomacy unraveled, pushing both nations into war.