AP Psychology Comprehensive Cram Guide: Research, Biology, Cognition, and Development
Research Design and Basic Vocabulary
Hypothesis: Defined as a tentative explanation for a phenomenon. A scientific hypothesis must be FALSIFIABLE, meaning it is structured in a way that allows it to be either supported or rejected by evidence.
Operational Definition: A clear, precise, and quantifiable definition of the variables used in a study. This is often referred to as "the recipe" for the research because it allows for exact replication by other researchers and the collection of reliable data.
Qualitative Data: Information that is descriptive in nature, such as eye color or observed behaviors.
Quantitative Data: Information that is numerical. This type of data is considered IDEAL and necessary for the application of statistical analysis.
Population: The entire group of individuals to whom the research findings could potentially apply.
Sample: The specific group of people (or sometimes a single person) chosen from the population to participate in the study.
Research Designs
CORRELATION: A research design used to identify the relationship between two variables. - Advantages: It is highly useful in scenarios where conducting an experiment would be unethical. - Disadvantages: A fundamental rule is that CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION. - Directionality Problem: It is difficult to determine which variable influences the other. For example, does depression cause low self-esteem, does low self-esteem cause depression, or is there a bidirectional relationship? - Third Variable Problem: An entirely different, unmeasured variable may be responsible for the relationship between the two studied variables (e.g., the correlation between ice cream sales and murder rates is actually mediated by heat). - Positive Correlation: Indicates that variables increase or decrease together in the same direction. - Negative Correlation: Indicates an inverse relationship where as one variable increases, the other decreases. - Correlation Coefficient: The strength of the relationship is determined by the number, regardless of whether the sign is positive or negative. The value cannot be less than or greater than . On a graph, stronger relationships result in tighter clusters of data points.
EXPERIMENTS: A design where researchers purposefully manipulate variables to determine a cause-and-effect relationship. - Advantages: This is the only research type that can establish cause and effect. - Disadvantages: Experiments can be unethical in certain contexts or too artificial/staged to reflect real-world behavior. - Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is purposefully altered by the researcher to look for an effect. - Experimental Group: The group(s) that receive the treatment or a specific level of the IV. A study can have multiple experimental groups. - Control Group: The group that receives a placebo or represents the baseline. They are technically a part of the IV, but there can typically only be one true control group. - Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured by the researcher; it is the outcome that is "dependent" on the manipulation of the independent variable.
Vocabulary Unique to Experiments: - Placebo Effect: Any observed effect on behavior that is caused by the administration of an inert substance (the placebo). Measuring this effect helps show the true effectiveness of an experimental treatment. - Double-Blind Study: An experiment where neither the participants nor the experimenters (those interacting with participants) know which condition people are assigned to. This is common in drug studies to prevent bias. - Single-Blind Study: Only the participants are unaware of their assignment. This is used when the experimenter cannot be blind (e.g., studies involving gender or age). - Confound (Confounding Variable): An error or flaw in a study that is accidentally introduced and might influence the results, making it difficult to isolate the effect of the IV. - Random Assignment: The process of assigning participants to either the control or experimental group at random. This increases the chance of equal representation across groups (e.g., "spreading the lefties across both groups") and is what allows researchers to claim cause and effect.
Other Study Types
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: Observing people or animals in their natural settings without interference. - Advantage: It has high "real-world" validity. - Disadvantage: It cannot establish cause and effect.
CASE STUDY: An in-depth study of ONE person (usually) in great detail. - Advantage: Allows for the collection of vast amounts of information. - Disadvantage: It cannot establish cause and effect and results may not generalize.
META-ANALYSIS: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple independent studies to increase the effective sample size and examine overall effect sizes.
Statistics
Descriptive Statistics: Statistics that describe the basic features and shape of the data. - Measures of Central Tendency: - Mean: The mathematical average (best used in a normal distribution). - Median: The middle number in a data set (best used in a skewed distribution). - Mode: The number that occurs most frequently. - Bimodal: A distribution with two modes, which usually indicates two distinct clusters of scores (e.g., many good scores and many bad scores). - Skews: Asymmetrical distributions created by outliers. - Negative Skew: The mean is pulled to the left (negative side), while the mode remains to the right. - Positive Skew: The mean is pulled to the right (positive side). - Measures of Variation: - Range: The distance between the smallest and the biggest number in the set. - Standard Deviation: The average amount that scores are spread out from the mean. A larger number indicates a greater spread of data. - Normal Curve: A theoretical bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of many types of human data.
Inferential Statistics: Statistics used to establish the significance or meaningfulness of results. - Statistical Significance: Indicates that the results are likely not due to chance, but rather that the experimental manipulation caused the difference in means. This is typically represented as , where a smaller value is considered better. - Effect Size: Indicates that the data has practical significance. Generally, a bigger effect size is better.
Ethical Guidelines
IRB Approval: Research involving human subjects must be approved by an Institutional Review Board.
Confidentiality: Ensuring that the names and identities of participants are kept secret.
Informed Consent: Participants must explicitly agree to be part of a study after being informed of its nature.
Informed Assent: For minors, the child must agree (assent) AND their parents must provide consent.
Debriefing: Participants must be told the true purpose of the study after it concludes, especially if deception was involved.
Deception: Is permitted only if it is warranted by the study's needs and does not cause harm.
No Harm: Research must not cause significant mental or physical harm to participants.
Additional Research Vocabulary
Surveys: Data collection tools often used in correlations. They are subject to Self-report bias, which includes: - Social Desirability: People lying on surveys to make themselves look better. - Wording Effects: How a question is framed or worded can significantly impact the answers provided.
Random Sample (Selection): The method for choosing participants from the population. Everyone in the population has an equal chance to be chosen, which increases generalizability. - IMPORTANT: Do not mix Random Sample (for Generalizability) with Random Assignment (for Cause/Effect).
Representative Sample: A sample that mimics the demographics of the general population (e.g., ethnicity, gender, age).
Convenience Sample: Selecting participants based on their availability. This method is less representative and results in less generalizability.
Sampling Bias: Occurs when the sample is not representative of the population, often due to convenience sampling.
Cultural Norms: The behaviors and expectations of a particular group that can influence research results.
Experimenter/Participant Bias: Expectations of either the researcher or the participant can influence the outcome of the study.
Cognitive Bias: Errors in thinking or judgment. - Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out and favor information that supports our preexisting beliefs. - Hindsight Bias: The "I knew it all along" phenomenon. - Overconfidence: The tendency to overestimate our own knowledge or abilities. - Hawthorne Effect: The phenomenon where people change their behavior simply because they know they are being watched.
Peer Review: Research needs to undergo review by experts in the field and utilize adequate sample sizes before being accepted.
Biological Basis: Heredity, Environment, and the Nervous System
Evolutionary Psychologists: Study how natural selection influences behaviors.
Heredity (Nature): How genes influence behavior.
Environment (Nurture): How external situations (e.g., school) influence behavior.
Nature vs. Nurture: The consensus in psychology is that behavior is a result of BOTH.
Twin and Adoption Studies: - Genetics: An identical twin has a higher percentage of developing a disease if their twin has it compared to fraternal twins. - Environment: Identical twins raised in different environments show measurable differences in behavior and personality.
Nervous System Hierarchy: - Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprising the brain and the spinal cord. - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The rest of the nervous system that relays signals to the CNS. - Somatic NS: Handles voluntary movement using sensory and motor neurons. - Autonomic NS: Controls involuntary organs (heart, lungs, etc.). - Sympathetic NS: Activates the "flight or fight" response (generally activates systems, with the exception of digestion). - Parasympathetic NS: Governs the "rest and digest" state (generally inhibits systems, with the exception of digestion).
The Neuron and Neural Firing
Neuron: The basic cell of the nervous system. - Dendrites: Receive incoming neurotransmitters (NTs). - Axon: The long fiber that the action potential (AP) travels down. - Myelin Sheath: Speeds up the AP and protects the axon. - Synapse: The microscopic gap between neurons.
Neuron Types: - Sensory Neurons: Receive sense signals from the environment and send them to the brain. - Motor Neurons: Send signals from the brain to the body to initiate movement. - Interneurons: Cells located in the spinal cord and brain responsible for the reflex arc (where important stimuli skip the brain and route through the spinal cord for immediate reactions, such as pulling a hand away from a hot flame).
Glia: Support cells that provide nutrients and clean up around neurons.
Neural Firing (The Action Potential): Ions move across the membrane, sending an electrical charge down the axon. - Resting Potential: The neuron maintains a charge of when at rest. - Depolarization: The charge briefly switches from negative to positive, triggering the AP. - Threshold of Depolarization: The stimulus strength must reach this specific point to initiate the AP. - All-or-Nothing Principle: The stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold; however, exceeding the threshold further does not increase the intensity or speed of the response (comparable to flushing a toilet). - Refractory Period: The neuron must rest and reset before it can fire another AP.
Neurotransmitters, Hormones, and Drugs
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals released into the synaptic gap. They are classified as Excitatory (increase APs in subsequent neurons) or Inhibitory (decrease APs). - GABA: The major inhibitory neurotransmitter. - Glutamate: The major excitatory neurotransmitter (Mnemonic: "Glutes excite you!"). - Dopamine: Associated with rewards (short-term) and fine movement; found in the hypothalamus and linked to addiction. - Serotonin: Affects moods (long-term), emotion, and sleep; located in the amygdala. Deficiencies are associated with depression. - Acetylcholine (ACh): Involved in memory and movement; located in the hippocampus. Linked to Alzheimer's disease. - Norepinephrine: Involved in the sympathetic NS; low levels are associated with depression. - Endorphins: Natural chemicals that decrease pain. - Substance P: Regulates pain; abnormalities can increase pain and inflammation.
Reuptake: The process where unused NTs are absorbed back into the sending neuron. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) block this process to treat depression.
Agonist: A drug that mimics a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist: A drug that blocks a neurotransmitter.
Hormones: Chemical messengers outside the nervous system. - Oxytocin: Associated with love, bonding, childbirth, and lactation. - Adrenaline: Associated with fight or flight responses. - Leptin: Signals the body to feel full and stop eating. - Ghrelin: Signals the body to feel hungry. - Melatonin: Regulates sleep.
Psychoactive Drugs: - Depressants: Decrease NS activity (e.g., alcohol). - Stimulants: Increase NS activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine). - Hallucinogens: Cause hallucinations and altered perceptions (e.g., marijuana). - Opioids: Relieve pain; they act as endorphin agonists (e.g., heroin). - Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to achieve previous effects. - Addiction: Needing a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms. - Withdrawal: Physical/mental symptoms associated with stopping drug use.
The Brain: Structure and Function
Cerebellum: Responsible for movement, balance, coordination, and procedural memory (e.g., balancing on a tightrope).
Brainstem/Medulla: Controls vital life functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.
Reticular Activating System (RAS): Manages alertness, arousal, sleep, and eye movement.
Cerebral Cortex: The outer portion of the brain responsible for higher-order thinking. It contains the limbic system, lobes, and corpus callosum.
Limbic System: - Amygdala: Processes emotions and fear. - Hippocampus: Manages episodic and semantic memory (Mnemonic: "If you saw a hippo on campus, you'd remember it!"). - Hypothalamus: The reward/pleasure center; regulates eating behaviors and homeostatic functions; links to the endocrine system. - Thalamus: The relay center for all senses except smell. - Pituitary Gland: Coordinates with the endocrine system and hypothalamus to release hormones.
The Lobes: - Occipital Lobe: Processes vision. - Frontal Lobe: Handles decision-making, planning, judgment, movement, personality, and language. Contains the Prefrontal Cortex (executive function) and the Motor Cortex (map of motor receptors controlling skeletal movement). - Parietal Lobe: Processes sensations and touch; contains the Somatosensory Cortex (map of touch receptors) and controls association areas. - Temporal Lobe: Processes hearing, face recognition, and language.
Association Areas: Areas that integrate input from multiple lobes.
Language Specifics (Left Hemisphere): - Broca's Area: Responsible for producing speech. Damage causes Broca's aphasia (stuttered/broken speech). - Wernicke's Area: Responsible for comprehending speech. Damage causes Wernicke's aphasia (jumbled speech).
Corpus Callosum: A bundle of nerves connecting the two hemispheres. It is sometimes severed to treat severe epilepsy, resulting in "split-brain" patients. - Split-brain Experiment: If an image is shown to the right eye, it is processed in the left hemisphere, and the patient can say what they saw. If shown to the left eye, it is processed in the right hemisphere; the patient cannot vocalize what they saw but might be able to draw it.
Brain Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and reorganize through experience or following damage.
Brain Research Tools: - EEG: Shows broad electrical activity but is not specific to regions. - fMRI: Shows specific regional brain activity by measuring oxygen use. - Lesion: The purposeful destruction of brain tissue for study.
Diseases and Disorders of the Brain
Multiple Sclerosis: Destruction of the myelin sheath, disrupting APs and causing mobility issues or pain.
Myasthenia Gravis: Acetylcholine is blocked, causing poor motor control and paralysis.
Blindsight: Caused by lesions to the primary visual cortex; individuals can "see" and react to objects despite being consciously blind.
Prosopagnosia: Face blindness caused by damage to the occipital and/or temporal lobes.
Phantom Limb Pain: Feeling pain in an amputated limb due to brain plasticity.
Epilepsy: Characterized by seizures; related to imbalances in Glutamate or GABA.
Alzheimer's: Destruction of acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus, leading to severe memory loss.
Sleep
Consciousness: Awareness of cognitive processes.
Circadian Rhythms: A 24-hour biological clock regulating body temperature and sleep. Jet lag and shift work can cause these rhythms to fall out of sync.
Sleep Waves: - Beta Waves: Active when awake (Mnemonic: "You betta be awake for the exam"). - Alpha Waves: High amplitude waves occurring when drowsy.
Stages of Sleep: - NREM 1: Light sleep; associated with hypnagogic sensations (the feeling of falling). - NREM 2: Features bursts of "sleep spindles." - NREM 3: Characterized by Delta Waves; deep sleep. - REM (Rapid Eye Movement): Stage for dreaming and cognitive processing. The body is relaxed (paralyzed), but the heart rate and brain are active (Paradoxical sleep).
Cycle Information: An entire sleep cycle takes roughly 90 minutes. REM occurs between cycles and lasts longer as the night progresses, while deep sleep decreases.
REM Rebound: Following sleep deprivation, an individual will experience more intense and longer REM cycles.
Dream Theories: - Activation Synthesis: Random bursts of energy stimulate memories in the limbic system and brain stem; the brain then creates a story for these random signals. - Consolidation Theory: Dreams are the brain's way of combining and processing memories for long-term storage.
Sleep Disorders: - Insomnia: Inability to fall or stay asleep, often due to stress. - Somnambulism: Sleepwalking; occurs during Stage 3 (not REM). - Narcolepsy: Falling into REM sleep uncontrollably; treated with stimulants. - Sleep Apnea: Suspension of breathing during sleep; often associated with obesity. - REM Behavior Disorder: Failure of the mechanism that paralyzes muscles during REM, causing individuals to act out dreams.
Sensation and the Visual System
Sensation: Receiving stimulus energy from the environment.
Transduction: Converting stimulus energy into action potentials (APs).
Perception: The brain's interpretation of sensory information.
Absolute Threshold: The minimum level of signal detection required for a person to notice it 50% of the time.
Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The minimum difference needed to tell two stimuli apart.
WEBER'S LAW: Two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion to be perceived as different. The stronger the initial stimulus, the more change is needed to notice a difference.
Synesthesia: A condition where senses blend (e.g., seeing sounds).
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity resulting from constant stimulation (e.g., "nose blindness"). Receptors literally get tired and respond less.
Visual Structures: - Lens: Changes curvature (Accommodation) to focus light on the retina. - Retina: Contains photoreceptors. - Rods: For black/white vision and dark adaptation. They are far more numerous than cones and located on the sides of the retina. - Cones: For color and bright light; located only in the Fovea (area of best vision). - Ganglion Cells: Their axons create the Optic Nerve. This is where opponent-process theory occurs. - Blind Spot: The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye, containing no photoreceptors.
Color Vision Theories: - Trichromatic Theory: Claims we have three cones (Blue-short wave, Green-medium wave, Red-long wave). - Opponent Process Theory: Claims complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells (Red/Green, Blue/Yellow, Black/White). Explains "afterimages." - Color Deficiency: Due to missing cones or ganglion cells. Red/green is most common. Dichromatism (missing 1 cone); Monochromatism (possessing only rods).
Auditory System and Other Senses
Sound Properties: - Wavelength: Distance between peaks, determining Pitch. Long waves = low pitch; Narrow waves = high pitch. - Amplitude: Height of the wave, determining Loudness. Tall waves = loud; Short waves = soft.
Hearing Theories (at the Cochlea): - Place Theory: The location on the hair cells that bends determines the sound (better for high pitches). - Frequency Theory: The rate at which APs are sent determines the sound (better for low pitches). - Volley Theory: Neurons fire in synchrony/groups to handle varied frequencies.
Ear Structures: Pinna, Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup, Cochlea (inner ear), Ear Drum (middle ear), Auditory Nerve.
Hearing Loss: - Conduction Deafness: Damage to the bones or ear drum. - Sensorineural: Damage to the cochlea hair cells or auditory nerve; common in old age or from loud noise exposure.
Other Senses: - Vestibular: Sense of balance; located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear. - Kinesthetic: Sense of body position and movement without needing to look. - Pain (Gate-Control Theory): A "gate" in the spinal cord controls how much pain signal reaches the brain. It is both mental and physical. - Taste (Gustation): Six receptors (Bitter, Salty, Sweet, Sour, Umami/Savory, Oleogustus/Fatty). "Super tasters" have higher receptor density. - Smell (Olfaction): The only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus. Uses Pheromones for intraspecies chemical signaling.
Perception and Cognition
Processing Types: - Top-Down Processing: Starting with the whole idea (prior expectations) and breaking it into smaller parts. - Bottom-Up Processing: Starting with smaller sensory parts and forming a whole idea.
Schemas: Preexisting mental concepts/frameworks (e.g., how a restaurant works).
Perceptual Set: The tendency to see something as part of a group, which speeds up processing.
Gestalt Psychology: The "whole is greater than the sum of its parts." - Principles: Figure/Ground, Closure (mentally filling gaps), Proximity (grouping things near each other), Similarity (grouping things that look alike).
Attention: - Selective Attention: Focusing on one thing while blocking out others. - Inattentional Blindness: Failing to notice something added because focus is elsewhere (e.g., the gorilla video). - Change Blindness: Failing to notice a change in a scene. - Cocktail Party Effect: Noticing your name across a loud room when you weren't previously paying attention.
Depth Cues: - Binocular: Requires both eyes. Includes Retinal Disparity (different images on each retina) and Convergence (eyes strain inward for near objects). - Monocular: Requires only one eye. Includes Interposition (overlapping), Relative Size (smaller is further), Linear Perspective (parallel lines converging), Relative Clarity (hazy is further), and Texture Gradient (coarser is closer).
Constancies: Recognizing objects don't physically change despite sensory input changes (size, shape, brightness).
Thinking and Problem Solving
Concepts: Mental categories to group objects. Prototypes are the "ideal" examples used for comparison.
Algorithms: Step-by-step strategies that guarantee a solution (e.g., a mathematical formula).
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts. - Representative Heuristic: Making judgments based on experience/stereotypes (e.g., assuming a quiet person is a librarian). - Availability Heuristic: Making judgments based on the first thing that comes to mind (e.g., fearing planes because of a recent news crash).
Metacognition: Thinking about/reflecting on the way you think.
Biases and Fallacies: - Mental Set: Persisting with one strategy even when it fails; inability to "think outside the box." - Functional Fixedness: Seeing only one common use for an item. - Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing an investment because you've already spent resources on it. - Gambler's Fallacy: Belief that a random outcome is "due" because it hasn't happened recently.
Thinking Styles: Divergent (creative, many ideas at once) and Convergent (one correct answer; limits creativity).
Executive Functioning: Generating and carrying out goal-directed behaviors.
Memory Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Encoding: - Levels of Processing: Deeper emphasis on meaning equals better memory. - Structural (Shallow): Physical structure. - Phonemic (Intermediate): Sound. - Semantic (Deep): Meaning. - Elaborative Rehearsal Strategies: Imagery, dual encoding (photo + words), chunking (breaking info into smaller units), and Mnemonics (e.g., PEMDAS, Method of Loci). - Context-Dependent Memory: Remembering better in the location where you learned (e.g., scuba diver tests). - State-Dependent Memory: Remembering better when in the same physical state as when learning.
Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus): Logic that recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau.
Storage: - Multi-Store Model: - Sensory Memory: Stores incoming stimuli briefly. Iconic (visual, seconds) and Echoic (auditory, seconds). - Short Term Memory (STM): Lasts seconds; capacity is items. - Long Term Memory (LTM): Lasts a lifetime. Divided into Explicit (Episodic/Events, Semantic/Facts) and Implicit (Classical conditioning, Priming, Procedural/Skills). - Working Memory Model: Splits STM into visual-spatial memory and a phonological loop, managed by a "central executive."
Memory Issues: - Tip of the Tongue: Stuck in a semantic network. - Infantile Amnesia: Memories before age 3 are unreliable because the hippocampus is still forming.
Biology of Memory: ACh neurons in the Hippocampus (Episodic/Semantic); Cerebellum (Implicit/Procedural); Amygdala (Emotional); Frontal Lobe (Encoding/Retrieval). Long-term Potentiation (LTP) is the strengthening of connections through repeated stimulation.
Retrieval: - Serial Position Effect: Remembering the beginning (Primacy) and end (Recency) of a list best. - Mood Congruent Memory: Remembering happy events when happy, and sad when sad.
Development Pillar
Major Issues: Nature/Nurture, Continuous vs. Discontinuous (stages), Stability vs. Change.
Studies: Cross-sectional (different ages at one point in time; quick/cheap) vs. Longitudinal (same people over time; eliminates cohort differences but expensive).
Physical Development: - Teratogens: External agents (alcohol, drugs) causing abnormal prenatal development. - Reflexes: Innate responses like Rooting (turning toward food) and Babinski (toes spreading). - Vision: Least developed at birth; babies undergo the "Visual Cliff" test to learn depth perception. - Critical Period: A limited window where a skill (like language) must be developed or it never will. - Puberty: Includes Primary (reproductive) and Secondary (nonreproductive) sex characteristics. Menarche (1st period); Spermarche (1st sperm release).
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development: - Sensorimotor (0-2): Exploring the world. Gaining Object Permanence (realize objects still exist when out of sight). - Pre-operational (2-7): Pretend play. Lacks Conservation (volume doesn't change with shape), Reversibility, and is Egocentric (cannot see other perspectives). - Concrete Operational (7-11): Logical thinking in concrete contexts. - Formal Operational (11-15): Abstract and hypothetical-deductive reasoning.
Vygotsky: Focused on social cognitive development. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the gap between what a child can do alone versus with support (Scaffolding).
Intelligence: Crystallized (facts/learning; increases with age) and Fluid (abstract thinking/speed; decreases with age).
Language Stages: Phonemes (sound unit), Morphemes (meaning unit), Cooing, Babbling, One-word, Telegraphic (two-word). - Overregularization: Grammar error where children over-apply morphemes (e.g., "I goed to the park").
Socioemotional: - Temperament: Patterns of emotional reactions in babies (Easy, Difficult, Slow to Warm). - Attachment Styles (Strange Situation): Secure (upset leave, calm return), Avoidant (doesn't care), Anxious (freaks out), Disorganized (fearful/confused). - Parenting Styles: Authoritarian (rules/obedience), Permissive (anything goes), Authoritative (give and take; best results). - Erik Erikson’s Crisis Stages: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair. - Marcia’s Identity Theory: Diffusion (no commitment/exploration), Foreclosure (premature commitment), Moratorium (exploring, no commitment), Identity Achievement (commitment after exploration). - Ecological Systems (Bronfenbrenner): Microsystem (immediate), Mesosystem (interaction of microsystems), Exosystem (indirect environment), Macrosystem (society/culture), Chronosystem (time/history).
Learning Pillar
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Involuntary): - UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Causes response naturally (Food). - UCR (Unconditioned Response): Natural response (Salivating). - CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Learned trigger (Bell). - CR (Conditioned Response): Learned response (Salivating to bell). - Principles: Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization (similar stimuli trigger), Discrimination (only CS triggers).
OPERANT CONDITIONING (Voluntary): - Law of Effect: Behaviors with positive outcomes are strengthened. - Reinforcement (Increase behavior): Positive (Add something nice) or Negative (Take away something bad, like an annoying car seatbelt signal). - Punishment (Decrease behavior): Positive (Add something bad) or Negative (Take away something good). - Schedules of Reinforcement: - Continuous: Reward every response. - Fixed Ratio: Reward every X number of responses. - Fixed Interval: Reward every X amount of time. - Variable Ratio: Reward after random number of responses (e.g., slot machines; most resistant to extinction). - Variable Interval: Reward after random amount of time.
Cognitive and Social Learning: - Learned Helplessness: Giving up because no action leads to a positive outcome. - Modeling: Imitating behaviors (Bandura’s Bobo Doll study). - Latent Learning: Learning is hidden until needed; involves creating Cognitive Maps. - Insight Learning: The "aha!" moment of sudden intuition.
Social and Personality Pillar
Attributions: How we explain behavior. - Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): Blaming personality while ignoring situational factors in others. - Self-Serving Bias: Taking credit for success, blaming situation for failure. - Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort felt when two thoughts conflict; solved by justifying behavior.
Social Influence: - Conformity (Asch): Adjusting behavior to match the group. - Obedience (Milgram): 65% of people administered lethal shocks when told to by an authority figure. - Group Dynamics: Group Polarization (opinions get stronger), Groupthink (harmony over logic), Bystander Effect (diffusion of responsibility), Social Loafing (less effort in a group). - Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo): Showed how people take on assigned roles (guards vs. prisoners) intensely.
Personality Theories: - Psychodynamic (Freud): Id (wants/devil), Superego (moral/angel), Ego (reality/mediator). - Defense Mechanisms: Repression (pushing memories back), Regression (acting childish), Projection (attributing own faults to others), Sublimation (turning impulse into acceptable behavior). - Trait Theory (The Big Five / OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. - Humanistic: Focus on personal growth and Self-actualization. - Social-Cognitive: Reciprocal Determinism (Person, Behavior, Environment interaction) and Self-efficacy (belief in success).
Motivation, Emotion, and Health Pillar
Motivation Theories: - Drive Reduction: Motivated by homeostasis (hunger drives you to eat). - Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimum arousal needed; easier tasks need more, harder tasks need less.
Emotion Theories: Historical focus on physiological arousal vs. cognitive experience. Includes Fast/Slow routes to the amygdala.
Stress (GAS): Alarm (temporary shock), Resistance (immune system enhanced), Exhaustion (body gives up).
Coping: Problem-focused (fixing the stressor) or Emotion-focused (meditation/exercise).
Mental Disorders (DSM/ICD): - Depression: MDD (extreme sadness) and Bipolar (Manic-Depressive). - Schizophrenia: Pos symptoms (Hallucinations/Delusions) and Neg symptoms (Flat affect). - Anxiety: Phobias, GAD, Panic Disorder. - Culture Bound Disorders: Ataque de nervios (Caribbean; uncontrollable screaming/crying) and Taijin kyofusho (Japan; fear of unpleasing others with one's body).
Personality Disorders Clusters: - Cluster A: Odd/Eccentric (Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal). - Cluster B: Dramatic/Erratic (Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic). - Cluster C: Anxious/Fearful (Avoidant, Dependent, OCPD).
Treatment: - Bio: Medication (Anti-psychotics/Tardive Dyskinesia, SSRIs, Lithium) and ECT/TMS. - Humanistic: Person-centered, active listening, unconditional positive regard. - Behavioral: Systematic desensitization and aversive conditioning. - Cognitive: Restructuring of the cognitive triad (self, world, future).
AP Exam Formatting
PART I (66.7%): 75 Multiple Choice Questions - 90 minutes.
PART II (33.3%): Two FRQs (Article Analysis and Evidence-Based) - 70 minutes.