The Battle of Hastings and the Norman Conquest of 1066 Study Notes

The Death of Edward the Confessor: In January $1066$ , King Edward the Confessor of England died without leaving a direct heir to the throne.
The Three Contenders: Following Edward's death, three primary figures emerged as contenders for the English crown:
- Harold Godwinson: The son of Earl Godwin, who was ultimately chosen by the Witenagemot (the assembly of the chief noblemen of England).
- William of Normandy: The Duke of Normandy, who claimed a right to the throne and was determined to take it by force.
- Harald Hardraada: The King of Norway, who also sought the crown through military conquest.
The Coronation of Harold: Harold Godwinson was crowned in Westminster Abbey in January $1066$ . His reign was immediately threatened by the competing claims of his rivals.

Anticipating Invasion: King Harold recognized the difficulty of maintaining control over England with two powerful enemies. He correctly assumed that an invasion was imminent but had to guess who would move first.
Initial Deployment: Believing William of Normandy was the most immediate threat, Harold stationed his primary defensive troops along the South Coast of England.
The Gamble of Geography: Harold's strategy relied on the timing of the weather. While he waited in the south, he was forced to monitor the northern borders for Norwegian activity.

Harald Hardraada’s Arrival: Contrary to Harold's expectation of a Norman arrival, the Norwegians made the first move. On September $20^{th}$ , $1066$ , Hardraada arrived at the mouth of the River Tyne.
Naval Strength: The Norwegian fleet consisted of more than $300$ ships.
The Battle of Fulford: The English earls, Edwin and Morcar, engaged the Norwegian forces but were eventually defeated.
Harold’s March North: Upon hearing of the invasion, King Harold led his army on a rapid forced march from the south to the north to confront the Norwegians.
Outcome of the Battle of Stamford Bridge: On September $25^{th}$ , $1066$ , Harold surprised the Norwegian army at Stamford Bridge, beyond York.
- Casualties: Both Harald Hardraada and Earl Tosti (Harold’s brother) were killed in the fighting.
- The Rout: The remaining Norwegian forces were put to flight.
- Devastating Losses: The victory was so absolute that only $24$ of the original $300$ Norwegian ships were required to carry the survivors back to Norway.

The Change in Circumstances: Just two days after Harold’s victory at Stamford Bridge, the wind direction changed. This wind had previously kept William of Normandy’s fleet in France.
Norman Arrival: On September $28^{th}$ , $1066$ , William’s invasion fleet landed at Pevensey on the Sussex coast.
Harold’s Response: Despite having lost many of his best men in the north and with approximately half of his total troops not yet assembled, Harold did not hesitate. He immediately began a march back south to meet William’s army.

The Norman Army: Total strength was approximately $6000$ men. It was a professional force composed of:
- Archers: Armed with bows and arrows.
- Cavalry: Men on horseback armed with swords; these were highly trained and experienced.
- Foot Soldiers: Armed primarily with spears.
- Mercenaries: Many of William’s soldiers were professional mercenaries with significant combat experience.
The Saxon (English) Army: Total strength was approximately $6000$ men, characterized by a mix of skill levels:
- Housecarls: The professional core of the army. They were highly trained soldiers armed with heavy battleaxes.
- Fyrd: Ordinary men called up during emergencies. They were unpaid, received little to no training, and were armed with spears and occasionally swords.

Description: A large embroidery that commemorates and depicts the events of the Norman Conquest and the Battle of Hastings.
Origin: It is believed to have been commissioned by Bishop Odo, William the Conqueror’s half-brother, who participated in the battle.
Reliability Issues: Historians face challenges when using the tapestry as a source:
- Visual Ambiguity: It is often difficult to interpret the specific actions or identities of figures in various scenes.
- Potential Bias: As a work commissioned by the victors, it may present a one-sided or pro-Norman version of events.

The Historical Mystery: There is significant debate among historians regarding the exact manner of Harold’s death, as primary sources provide conflicting accounts.
Evidence from the Bayeux Tapestry: The tapestry shows the death of Harold, but contains two figures who are wounded—one being hit in the eye by an arrow and another being cut down by a sword. Some historians argue both figures are intended to represent the same king at different stages of his death.
William of Malmesbury ( $1140$ ): Recorded that Harold died after his brain was pierced by an arrow, and that a soldier subsequently gashed his thigh with a sword as he lay on the ground.
William of Poitiers ( $1071$ ): Stated that the King fell alongside his two brothers and was so mutilated by sword cuts to the face that he was unrecognizable, only identifiable by specific marks on his body.

Question: Can you remember who the three contenders for the English crown were?
Question: What would you do if you were Harold (regarding the dual invasion threat)?
Question: Why was the change in the wind such bad timing? Who had the better chance of winning the next battle? Why?
Question: What does the text (Florence of Worcester, $1115$ ) tell you about the type of man Harold was? What advice would you have given him and why?
Question: Study the Bayeux Tapestry scene of the Norman army setting sail. How many details can you pick out?
Question: What condition do you think the Norman army was in by the time of the Battle of Hastings in comparison to the Saxons?
Question: In the battle scene of the tapestry, which are the Normans and which are the Saxons? Which side seems to be winning? How can you tell?
Question: How reliable are the sources that deal with Harold’s death? Consider who made the source, why they made it, and their proximity to the event.