Voting Rights and Models of Voting Behavior Study Notes
Voting Rights and Models of Voting Behavior
Essential Question
How does the Constitution and legislation protect voting rights, and how do models relate to voting behavior?
Historical Context of Voting Rights
The framers of the Constitution allowed state governments to define qualifications for voting and manage elections.
In early U.S. history, only property-owning men were allowed to vote.
Dwight Eisenhower's quote emphasizes the significance of the right to vote, which has historically been hindered by legal barriers and intimidation, particularly against African Americans in the South.
Today, constitutional amendments and legislation support voting rights for almost all adult citizens, who make voting choices based on various criteria.
Redefining "We the People"
Voting is the primary means of political participation, with large percentages of Americans, referred to as the electorate, voting every four years.
Elections occur at local, state, and federal levels between presidential elections.
The concept of popular sovereignty, individualism, and republicanism underpins U.S. laws and policy-making, presuming active citizen engagement.
Voter eligibility has expanded over time to include various demographics, including:
Working class
African Americans
Women
Residents of Washington, D.C.
Young adults
An Expanding Electorate
The franchise (right to vote) was initially limited to property-owning white males, a few of whom decided the outcome of early presidential elections.
Initially, the Constitution mandated electors appointed by state legislatures, leading to no popular vote for the first president, George Washington; however, all electors voted for him.
By the 1800 presidential election, five of 16 states had allowed popular elections for selecting electors, and all states did so by 1823.
Inequitable voting practices were evident, including religious tests and property requirements, which barred women, African Americans, and immigrants from voting.
Activists worked for over a century to reform voting laws and broaden suffrage.
Suffrage Amendments
America did not grant voting rights to various groups, including African Americans and women, until the passing of key amendments:
Fifteenth Amendment (1870): Prohibits voting rights denial based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
Nineteenth Amendment (1920): Prohibits denial of voting rights based on sex.
Twenty-third Amendment (1961): Allows D.C. residents to vote in presidential elections.
Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964): Prohibits poll taxes in voting.
Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971): Lowers voting age to 18.
All suffrage amendments include an enforcement clause, allowing Congress to ensure compliance with the amendments.
African American Suffrage
Initial discussions on African American voting arose in the 1830s with six northern states permitting African American votes.
Post-Civil War, the Reconstruction Amendments (Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth) significantly redefined voting rights for African Americans:
Thirteenth Amendment: Freed enslaved individuals.
Fourteenth Amendment: Granted citizenship and legal protections.
Fifteenth Amendment: Granted voting rights.
Initially enforced during Reconstruction, substantial voter turnout, and representation of African Americans occurred until post-1876 when Jim Crow laws began to suppress these rights through intimidation and loopholes.
Structural Barriers to Voting
Southern states implemented various measures to suppress black voting:
Property and literacy tests.
Poll taxes.
Grandfather clauses, allowing many whites to evade voting restrictions while disenfranchising African Americans.
Historian C. Vann Woodward documented the drastic reduction in registered black voters in Louisiana between 1896 and 1904 due to these discriminatory practices.
White Democratic primaries formed to disenfranchise black voters by restricting voting in party primaries to whites only.
Progress Through Law
Adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment (1913) enabled direct election of senators, increasing responsiveness to constituents.
Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s led to significant increases in African American voter registration and participation.
Supreme Court rulings invalidated discriminatory voting practices (e.g., Guinn v. United States in 1915, Smith v. Allwright in 1944).
Women's Suffrage
The women’s suffrage movement gained momentum in the mid-1800s. Early states (e.g., Wyoming, Idaho) allowed women to vote.
The battle culminated in the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment (1920), with prominent figures like Susan B. Anthony advocating for women's voting rights.
By the 1916 election, both major political parties endorsed women's suffrage, and women became more active in politics.
Rounding Out the Electorate
By the late 1950s, significant populations—women, younger individuals, and African Americans—still faced barriers.
Legislative efforts included the 1957 Civil Rights Act and the expansive 1964 Civil Rights Act.
1965 Voting Rights Act: Outlawed literacy tests, mandated federal oversight of low-turnout states, increasing black voter registration dramatically.
Supreme Court's Shelby County v. Holder (2013) challenged the Voting Rights Act, leading to a decision that struck down the preclearance provision.
The District of Columbia
The Twenty-third Amendment (1961) granted electoral votes to D.C., but it did not confer state status, leaving 599,657 residents without Congressional voting representation.
D.C. has historically voted Democratic since its first voting in 1964.
Young Adults
Voting age was typically 21 years; however, campaigns to lower it gained traction post-World War II.
The Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971) established the voting age at 18, emphasizing inclusion in the electoral process post-Vietnam War.
Voting Models
Various models illustrate voter behavior:
Rational-Choice Voting
Involves voters evaluating candidates and issues based on personal benefit or values.
Example: A retiring citizen may vote for a candidate promising to protect Social Security.
Retrospective Voting
Voters assess candidates based on historical performance or track records, often favoring the opposition after unfavorable conditions under incumbents.
Prospective Voting
Voters consider future implications of candidates’ policies, such as economic forecasts affecting job creation and tax revenues.
Party-Line Voting
Voters with strong party identification typically vote along party lines, with party affiliation being a significant predictor of voting behavior.
Other Factors in Voting
Candidate character and contemporary issues play crucial roles in voter decisions, as seen in notable elections.
Factors influencing voter turnout include personal attributes (upbringing, political ideology), state laws, and the election type.
Key Terms and Names
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Electorate
Fifteenth Amendment (1870)
Franchise
Grandfather Clause
Literacy Test
Nineteenth Amendment
Party Identification
Party-Line Voting Model
Poll Tax
Preclearance
Prospective Voting Model
Rational-Choice Voting Model
Retrospective Voting Model
Seventeenth Amendment (1913)
Suffrage
Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964)
Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971)
Twenty-Third Amendment (1961)
Voting Rights Act of 1965
White Primary
Voter Turnout
Essential Question
What roles do individual choice and state laws play in voter turnout?
Overview
In the 2016 election, approximately 138 million Americans participated, putting turnout at just over 60% of eligible voters.
Voter participation is influenced by personal factors (upbringing, political ideology) and state laws regarding registration and voting.
Election types significantly impact turnout rates, with presidential elections drawing the highest participation compared to midterm and local elections.
State and Local Administration of Elections
Voter eligibility generally requires registration, age (at least 18), citizenship, and no felony status.
Various state laws dictate the registration process, which can affect overall voter turnout.