Introduction and Basic Concepts in Research Flashcards

Course Information

• Course: RESEARCH 1: REVIEWER BSTM 231

• Professor: Danica D. Potestad

• Student / Author: Mr. Louisse Alfonso D. Ramirez

Chapter 1: Introduction & Basic Concepts in Research

Definition and Scope of Research

Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way to generate new:

• Concepts

• Methodologies

• Understandings

Research Involves:

1. Searching for answers: Searching for answers to questions or solutions to problems.

2. Discovering and interpreting: Discovering and interpreting new facts.

3. Improving and developing: Improving existing techniques and developing new instruments or products.

4. Examining theories: Examining theories in order to revise accepted theories and/or laws based on new facts.

5. Framing new theories: Developing and forming new theories.

The Four Aims of Research

1. Describe: Descriptive studies are designed primarily to describe what exists.

   • Main Question: What exists?

2. Predict: Causal study or correlational research is used to predict trends or patterns.

   • Main Question: What will happen?

3. Explain: Phenomena can be explained by establishing correlations and postulating a causal mechanism to provide insight into events.

   • Main Question: Why/how did it happen?

4. Interpret: Interpretation is achieved by understanding the reasons and intentions behind individual actions.

   • Main Question: What does it mean/why did they act?

Characteristics of Good Research

1. Systematic: Research follows an orderly and sequential procedure (organized steps).

2. Controlled: All variables except those being tested are kept constant (control the conditions).

3. Empirical: All procedures used and gathered data are perceived in the same manner by observers (observable evidence).

4. Analytical: There is critical analysis of all data so there is no error in interpretation (analyze carefully).

5. Objective, Unbiased & Logical: All findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data, with no effort made to alter results (no bias / no manipulation).

6. Employs Hypothesis: Tentative answers are formulated as a guide to the investigation process (testable prediction).

7. Original: Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary sources rather than secondary printed materials.

8. Done By An Expert: The researcher uses:

   • Valid procedures

   • Carefully designed procedures

   • Valid data-gathering instruments

   • Valid data

9. Accurate Investigation, Observation & Description: All conclusions are based on actual evidence.

Seven Dimensions of Research Classification

Research is classified according to seven distinct dimensions:

1. Purpose

2. Process or Approach

3. Outcome/Goal

4. Levels of Investigation

5. Type of Analysis

6. Statistical Content

7. Time Element

Classification According to Purpose

1. Exploratory Research: Conducted when there are few or no earlier studies to which references can be made. Its focus is on gaining insights and familiarity with the subject for more rigorous investigation later.

   • Main Question: What is happening?

2. Descriptive Research: Used to identify and obtain information about the characteristics of a particular issue. It goes further than exploratory research by examining and describing the characteristics of the issue.

   • Main Question: What exists? Who? What?

3. Analytical Research: A continuation of descriptive research where the researcher goes beyond merely describing characteristics by analyzing and explaining why or how something is happening.

   • Main Question: Why did it happen? Why? or How?

4. Predictive Research: Research that goes further by forecasting the likelihood of a similar situation occurring elsewhere and provides answers concerning current events and similar events in the future.

   • Main Question: What will happen?

5. Illuminative Research: Research concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable being investigated, utilizing original data.

   • Main Question: How do variables influence one another?

Classification According to Process or Approach

Research approaches are divided into two major methodologies:

1. Quantitative Research

Research that aims to measure quantity or amount, compare it with past records, and project for future periods. Its objective is to develop and employ:

• Mathematical models

• Theories & Numbers

• Hypotheses

Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research.

2. Qualitative Research

Research that involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data by observing what people do and say. It refers to:

• Meanings

• Definitions

• Characteristics

• Symbols

• Metaphors

• Descriptions

Qualitative research is more subjective, exploratory, open-ended, and commonly uses:

• Individual in-depth interviews

• Focus groups

Types of Qualitative Research

• Phenomenology: A form of research where the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon.

  • Focus: Lived experiences

  • Question: What is it like to experience this?

• Ethnography: Research that focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. Culture includes the group's shared attributes, values, norms, practices, language, and material things.

  • Focus: Culture

• Case Study: A form of qualitative research focused on providing a detailed account of one or more cases.

  • Focus: Specific case

• Grounded Theory: An inductive type of research, based or grounded in observations and data from which the theory is developed. It may use quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation, and surveys.

  • Focus: Developing theory from data

Classification According to Outcome / Goal

1. Applied Research: A problem-oriented type of research concerned with applying scientific theory to real-life problems. It is usually carried out to solve a specific problem requiring a decision.

   • Memory Hook: APPLIED = SOLVE A REAL PROBLEM

2. Pure/Basic Research: Research conducted primarily to improve understanding of general issues without emphasis on immediate application. It is described as the most academic form of research because its principal aim is to contribute to knowledge, generally for the good, rather than solve a specific organizational problem.

   • Memory Hook: BASIC = EXPAND KNOWLEDGE

Types of Basic Research

• Discovery: Basic research where a totally new idea or explanation emerges from empirical research and may revolutionize thinking about the topic.

  • Core Concept: Discovery = Find something new

• Invention: Research where a new technique or method is created.

  • Core Concept: Invention = Create something new

• Reflection: Research where an existing theory, technique, or group of ideas is re-examined, possibly in a different organizational or social context.

  • Core Concept: Reflection = Re-examine

• Action: Research in which the researcher deliberately interferes with or changes what is being researched. The action is both an outcome and a part of the research. Because the researcher participates in the change process, there is a loss of critical, detached objectivity.

  • Memory Hook: ACTION RESEARCH = RESEARCH + CHANGE

Classification According to Levels of Investigation

1. Exploratory Research: Researcher studies the variables pertinent to the research.

2. Descriptive Research: Researchers study the relationship between variables.

3. Experimental Method: Experimenter studies the effects of variables on one another.

Characteristics of a Good Experimental Design

• Comparative: Compares groups or conditions.

• Replicable: Can be repeated, reducing the effect of uncontrolled variation.

• Randomly Assigned: Experimental units are assigned randomly to avoid bias and control the role of chance.

• Blinded: Blinding is used to reduce bias.

• Internally Controlled: There is internal control.

• Representative: It has representativeness.

• Memory Hook: C-R-R-B-I-R (Comparative, Replicable, Random, Blinding, Internal Control, Representative)

Classification According to Type of Analysis

1. Analytical Approach: The researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of the research situation.

   • Focus: Parts

2. Holistic Approach: The researcher begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system first and then on its internal relationships.

   • Focus: Whole

Analytical vs. Holistic Comparison

• Memory Hook: ANALYTICAL = PARTS | HOLISTIC = WHOLE

Classification According to Statistical Content

1. Quantitative / Statistical Research: Uses inferential statistics to determine study results. Common methods include Correlation, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and other inferential statistics.

2. Non-Quantitative Research: The use of quantity/statistics is practically nil. Descriptive data are gathered, including anthropological studies.

• Memory Hook: Statistical = Inferential | Non-statistical = Descriptive

Classification According to Time Element

1. Historical Research: Describes what WAS.

2. Descriptive Research: Describes what IS.

3. Experimental Research: Describes what WILL BE.

• Memory Hook: WAS $\rightarrow$ IS $\rightarrow$ WILL BE (Historical $\rightarrow$ Descriptive $\rightarrow$ Experimental)

Research Variables

A variable is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change:

• From group to group

• From person to person

• Within one person over time

Six Common Types of Variables

1. Dependent Variable (DV): Shows the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variable. Variation in the dependent variable depends on variation in the independent variable.

   • Think: EFFECT / OUTCOME

2. Independent Variable (IV): A variable that the researcher has control over. Control may involve manipulating existing variables or introducing new variables. The researcher expects the independent variable to have an effect on or relationship with the dependent variable.

   • Think: CAUSE / INPUT

3. Intervening Variable: Refers to abstract processes that are not directly observable but link the independent and dependent variables.

   • Think: BRIDGE / MEDIATOR

4. Moderator Variable: Affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are measured and taken into consideration.

   • Think: CHANGES THE STRENGTH OF THE RELATIONSHIP

5. Control Variable: Variables that are held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated so they do not have a biasing effect on other variables.

   • Think: KEPT CONSTANT

6. Extraneous Variable: Factors in the research environment that may affect the dependent variable but are not controlled. They may damage the study's validity. If they cannot be controlled, they must at least be considered when interpreting results.

   • Think: UNCONTROLLED OUTSIDE FACTOR

Variable Relationship Example

$\text{Service Quality (IV)} \rightarrow \text{Customer Satisfaction (Intervening)} \rightarrow \text{Customer Loyalty (DV)}$

• IV: Service Quality

• Intervening: Customer Satisfaction

• DV: Customer Loyalty

The Research Process

The scientific research process consists of four primary sequence steps:

1. Formulate a Question: Identify what you want to investigate.

2. Define the Question: Clarify exactly what the question means.

3. Review the Literature: Study existing knowledge and previous research.

4. Create a Hypothesis: Develop a tentative answer/prediction to be tested.

• Memory Hook: F-D-R-H (Formulate $\rightarrow$ Define $\rightarrow$ Review $\rightarrow$ Hypothesize)

Chapter 2: The Problem and Its Setting

The Research Problem

A Research Problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, theory, or practice, pointing to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some disciplines, the research problem is posed in the form of a question.

• Memory Hook: RESEARCH PROBLEM = AN ISSUE THAT NEEDS INVESTIGATION

Good Research Problem Statement Structure

• Begins with the broad area of the research.

• Gradually narrows toward the specific questions being asked.

• Does not need to be lengthy.

• Must contain important features of a good research problem.

Features of a Good Research Problem

1. Compelling Topic: Simple curiosity is not enough. The problem must be important to the researcher and to a larger community, and it must motivate the researcher to address it.

2. Supports Multiple Perspectives: The problem should avoid dichotomies and instead support the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A good problem generates different viewpoints from reasonable people.

3. Researchable: The problem must be supportable by the resources available to the researcher.

Criteria for When a Problem is Researchable

1. There is no known solution to the problem.

2. The solution can be answered using statistical methods and techniques.

3. There are probable solutions that are not yet tested.

4. The phenomenon requires scientific investigation to arrive at a precise solution.

SMART Characteristics of a Good Research Problem

• S — Specific: The problem should be specifically stated.

• M — Measurable: It should be easy to measure using research instruments.

• A — Attainable: Data can be achieved using correct statistical techniques.

• R — Reliable: Results are real and not manipulated.

• T — Time-Bound: A time frame is required for every activity.

Additional Form Characteristics

• Stated vividly.

• Explicitly expressed in interrogative/question form (questions have the virtue of posing a problem directly).

Sources of Research Problems

Research problems can be sourced from 13 distinct areas:

1. Personal experience

2. Practical experience

3. Critical appraisal of literature

4. Previous research

5. Existing theories

6. Consumer feedback

7. Performance improvement activities

8. Social issues

9. Brainstorming

10. Intuition

11. Folklores

12. Exposure to field situations

13. Consultation with experts

Elements of a Research Problem

A research problem contains five essential elements:

1. Aim/Purpose: The purpose for conducting the investigation.

2. Subject Matter: What is being studied.

3. Place/Locale: Where the study is conducted.

4. Period/Time: When data will be gathered.

5. Population/Universe: From whom data will be collected.

• Memory Hook: A-S-P-P-P (Aim, Subject, Place, Period, Population)

Guidelines in Selecting a Research Problem or Topic

The research problem or topic must satisfy the following criteria:

1. Must be chosen by the researcher.

2. Must be within the researcher's interest.

3. Must be within the researcher's specialization.

4. Must be within the researcher's competence.

5. Must be financially manageable.

6. Must be researchable and manageable.

7. Must be supported by available and accessible data that meet standards of accuracy, objectivity, and verifiability.

8. Specific questions/sub-problems must be answerable, hypotheses testable, and equipment/instruments available and capable of producing valid and reliable results.

9. Can be completed within a reasonable time.

10. Is significant, timely, and of current interest.

11. Results are practical and implementable.

12. Requires original, critical, and reflective thinking.

13. Provides some return to the researcher, such as:

    • Monetary benefit

    • Advancement in position

    • Improved specialization and competence

    • Enhanced prestige and reputation

    • Satisfaction of intellectual curiosity

The Research Title

A Research Title must be reflective of the research problem. It must address specific core dimensions:

• WHAT? What are you trying to investigate, find out, determine, or discover?

• WHO? Who are the respondents or subjects?

• WHERE? What is the research locale, setting, or place where the study is conducted?

• WHEN? The timeframe within which data is collected.

• HOW? How the research will be conducted, including research design, methodology, research tools, and analysis techniques.

Choosing an Appropriate Title

• Captures the reader's attention.

• Highlights the research problem.

• Begins as a working title and eventually becomes the final title.

Working Research Title

A Working Title is developed early in the research process. Its functions include:

• Anchoring the focus of the study.

• Keeping the researcher focused on the main purpose.

• Reorienting the researcher when drifting away from the topic.

• Note: The final title is created after the research is complete so it accurately captures what was done.

Characteristics and Formatting Guidelines of a Research Title

1. Formulated before research starts.

2. May be revised/refined later.

3. Contains the subject matter.

4. Contains the locale.

5. Contains the population.

6. Indicates what is expected to be found.

7. Is brief and concise.

8. Avoids unnecessary phrases such as:

   • "An Analysis of…"

   • "A Study of…"

   • "An Investigation of…"

9. If more than one line long, it is written as an inverted pyramid and major words are capitalized.

Introduction and Background of the Study

To make the Introduction engaging and effective, it must:

• Provide general information about the research topic.

• Emphasize the main aims of the study.

• Discuss only the main and relevant aspects of previous studies.

• Avoid elaborating on literature that belongs in the literature review.

• Discuss findings chronologically to show progress in the field.

• Identify missing points and research gaps.

• Present the researcher's interpretation of previous research.

• Explain what the study proposes to accomplish.

• Build a story around the central theme, ensuring it follows the core idea, avoids unnecessary digression, allows each idea to lead to the next, helps readers understand the research gap, and shows what the study will address.

Theoretical Framework

The Theoretical Framework is the structure that holds or supports a theory of a research study. It introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem exists.

Nature of Theories

Theories are formulated to:

• Explain phenomena

• Predict phenomena

• Understand phenomena

• Challenge and extend existing knowledge within critical/bounding assumptions

Selecting a Theory

A theory should be selected based on:

1. Appropriateness

2. Ease of application

3. Explanatory power

Importance of Theoretical Framework

1. Enables critical evaluation: Theoretical assumptions can be critically evaluated; provides a basis for hypotheses and research methods.

2. Connects researcher to existing knowledge: Moves the researcher beyond simply describing a phenomenon.

3. Answers WHY and HOW: Specifies key variables influencing a phenomenon.

4. Identifies limits of generalizations: Identifies circumstances under which variables may differ.

Guidelines for Developing Theoretical Framework

• Include theories, laws, and legal bases such as:

  • Theories

  • Laws

  • Republic Acts (RA)

  • Executive Orders (EO)

  • Statutes

• These bases should serve as guides for the study, be explained in terms of why they are appropriate, and be related directly to the study.

Conceptual Framework

The Conceptual Framework is an analytical tool used to obtain a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon. It is commonly used to visually explain key concepts, variables, and relationships between variables that need to be studied. It provides a general structure of concepts that helps establish the boundaries of the study.

Guidelines for Conceptual Framework

1. Include the researcher's own model of the study.

2. Present the central theme/focus.

3. Discuss the research paradigm.

4. Include a schematic diagram showing variables.

5. Use arrows to show relationships between variables.

6. Provide a clear discussion of independent and dependent variables and how they influence study results.

Theoretical vs. Conceptual Framework

• Memory Hook: THEORETICAL = THEORY = WHY | CONCEPTUAL = CONCEPTS = HOW

Statement of the Problem

The Statement of the Problem sets the direction of the study and represents the verbalization of the question the study proposes to answer. It is divided into two parts:

1. Main Problem

2. Subsidiary Problems

General Guidelines

• The general problem and specific sub-problems should be formulated before conducting the research.

• Specific problems are customarily stated in interrogative form.

• Each specific question should be clear, unequivocal, have only one meaning, and be based on known facts and phenomena.

Main Problem

• Represents the whole focus of the study and is reflected in the research title.

• Requires an introductory statement reflecting the main problem.

• If the study requires an output, it should be stated as a continuation of the main problem.

Subsidiary Problems

• Subsidiary problems represent the breakdown of the main variable into its components.

• Must not be answerable simply by yes or no.

• Should include independent and moderator variables reflected in the conceptual framework.

• Must be arranged logically.

• Must provide extensive coverage.

• Must be mutually exclusive in their dimensions.

• Avoid "how" questions when the research is quantitative.

• Memory Hook: MAIN = WHOLE | SUBSIDIARY = PARTS

Hypotheses in Research

A hypothesis is a statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested by research. It is created when researchers speculate about the outcome of research or an experiment.

• Key Distinction: A hypothesis is NOT merely a guess. It must be based on existing theories and knowledge, and it must be testable (capable of being supported or refuted through scientific methods such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis).

Two Forms of Hypotheses

1. Null Hypothesis ($H_0$): A hypothesis stated in a negative manner. It usually uses phrases such as "There is no significant difference…" or "There is no significant relationship…".

   • Memory Hook: $H_0$ = NO (Null)

2. Operational / Alternative Hypothesis ($H_a$): A hypothesis stated in an affirmative manner, expressing equality or a relationship between phenomena. It is more commonly used.

   • Memory Hook: $H_a$ = YES / THERE IS

Guidelines for Explicit Hypotheses

• Experimental investigations should state hypotheses explicitly.

• Descriptive and historical research seldom express hypotheses.

• Hypotheses are usually stated in null form.

• Hypotheses are formulated from the specific research questions on which they are based.

Scope and Delimitations

Scope

Details how in-depth the study will explore the research question and the parameters within which it will operate, particularly regarding population and timeframe. It tells which aspects of a subject the researcher has chosen to analyze.

• Memory Hook: SCOPE = WHAT THE STUDY COVERS

What to Include in Scope

• WHAT: The subject being investigated and included variables.

• WHERE: The location/setting where data will be gathered.

• WHEN: The timeframe within which data will be collected.

• WHO: The population from which subjects/respondents will be selected (must be large enough to allow generalizations).

• HOW: How the research will be conducted (research design, methodology, tools, analysis techniques).

Sentence Starters for Writing Scope

• "This study is to focus on…"

• "This study covers the…"

• "This study aims to…"

Delimitations

Delimitations are factors and variables not included in the investigation. They are boundaries deliberately set by the researcher concerning study duration, population size, type of participants, and other study aspects. The delimitation explains why some aspects were included and others excluded.

• Memory Hook: DELIMITATION = WHAT THE RESEARCHER CHOOSES TO EXCLUDE

Writing Delimitations

Because delimitations are within the researcher's control, explain:

• Why the boundaries were set.

• What alternatives were available.

• Why alternatives were rejected.

• How the delimitations relate to the research question.

• Note: Scope and delimitations are usually considered together.

Sentence Starters for Writing Delimitations

• "This study does not cover…"

• "This study is limited to…"

• "The following has been excluded from this study…"

Examples of Delimitations

• Research objectives

• Research questions

• Research variables

• Target populations

• Statistical analysis techniques

Limitations

Limitations are characteristics of the research design or methodology that are outside the researcher's control but influence research findings. They can affect validity, reliability, internal validity, and external validity. Therefore, they are considered potential weaknesses of the study.

• Memory Hook: LIMITATION = WHAT THE RESEARCHER CANNOT CONTROL

• Mnemonic: DE = DECIDED (Delimitation) | LI = LIMIT (Limitation)

Comparison: Delimitations vs. Limitations

Examples of Limitations

• Issues with sample and selection

• Insufficient sample size

• Population traits or specific participants affecting statistical significance

• Lack of previous research studies

• Limitations in technology/instruments used to collect data

• Limited financial resources/funding constraints

Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study explains the importance of the research and details how it will benefit:

• Development of science

• Society

• The research field

• Specific groups/beneficiaries

Core Questions Significance Should Answer

1. Why should your research be published?

2. How will this study contribute to the development of your field?

3. Who will benefit from the findings?

Formatting and Writing Rules

• May be written in one or two paragraphs.

• Beneficiaries may be enumerated individually and assigned specific benefits based on findings.

• Crucial Requirement: The most benefited group must be stated FIRST.

Definition of Terms and Operationalization

Operational Definition

An Operational Definition (also called a functional definition) explains a concept according to how it is measured in the investigation. There are two types:

1. Measured Operational Definition: States the way a concept is measured.

2. Experimental Operational Definition: Specifies the details of how a variable is manipulated.

Guidelines for Definition of Terms

1. Terms should be defined operationally as used in the study.

2. Terms should come ONLY from the title and Statement of the Problem (SOP).

3. Definitions must be brief, clear, and unequivocal.

• Memory Hook: TERMS = TITLE + SOP | DEFINITIONS = BRIEF + CLEAR + UNEQUIVOCAL

Operationalization

Operationalization is the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. It defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured empirically and quantitatively.

• Memory Hook: OPERATIONALIZATION = MAKE A CONCEPT MEASURABLE

Purposes of Operationalization

• Sets exact definitions for each variable.

• Increases quality of results.

• Improves robustness of research design.

• Defines the exact measuring method.

• Allows other researchers to follow the same methodology.

• Helps standardize measurements.