Civics & Citizenship – Exam-Prep Bullet Notes

Political Spectrum

• Traditional left–right axis: left = progressive, economic intervention; right = conservative, free-market
• 4-quadrant model adds $\text{Authoritarian} \leftrightarrow \text{Libertarian}$ dimension (government control of social life vs individual freedom)
• Awareness helps identify bias, clarify personal stance, interpret policy motives, and inform voting

Media & Bias

• Roles in liberal democracy: information conduit and watchdog
• Should be free, independent, pluralistic; Australia’s ownership highly concentrated (≈$90\%$ print, $70\%$ free-to-air TV held by 4 firms)
• Media bias = partial/prejudiced reporting; forms: emotive language, labels, agenda spin, image/caption bias, false balance, selection/omission
• Covington case illustrates premature framing and defamation risk (large settlements)

Australian Parliament – Basics

• Bicameral: House of Representatives (lower), Senate (upper)
• Seating: House $151$ MPs (electorates of equal voters); Senate $76$ (each state $12$, territory $2$)
• Government = party/coalition with House majority; Opposition = largest non-government bloc

House of Representatives

• Functions: form government, initiate $\&$ vote on bills, scrutinise executive, committees, represent electorates
• Current composition (05/12/23): Labor $77$, Coalition $55$, Independents $12$, Greens $4$, others $2$

Senate

• House of review; protects state interests; similar legislative, committee, scrutiny roles
• Composition (05/12/23): Coalition $31$, Labor $26$, Greens $11$, others/independents $8$
• Cross-bench often holds balance of power

Executive & Opposition

• Prime Minister leads government; appoints ministers
• Cabinet = PM + senior ministers (core policy body)
• Shadow Cabinet monitors ministers; provides alternative policies

Political Parties

• Definition: organised groups sharing policy views aiming for election
• Must: register with AEC, $\ge 500$ members, written constitution
• Roles: represent voters, influence policy via legislation, committees, media
• Minor parties/independents can control Senate balance of power

Voting Systems

• Preferential (House): candidate needs >50\% after distribution of preferences
• Proportional (Senate): quota $=\frac{\text{formal votes}}{\text{seats}+1}+1$; typical state half-senate quota $14.3\%$
• Ballot options: above-the-line (≥$6$ parties), below-the-line (≥$12$ candidates)
• First-past-the-post: most votes wins (not used federally)

Campaigning & Advertising

• Techniques: positive, negative, scare campaigns; emotive slogans; hyperbole
• No federal truth-in-advertising law; $\approx 500$ complaints (2019) – no penalties
• No spending caps; example: Clive Palmer $\$60$ million (2019) raises equity concerns
• Pork-barrelling: disproportionate funding to marginal seats undermines representation

The Australian Constitution

• Written framework (1901); supplemented by unwritten conventions (e.g., PM role)
• Limited rights: $5$ express, $2$ implied; no Bill of Rights
• Amendment via referendum; needs double majority: national >50\% AND majority in $\ge 4$ states

Separation of Powers

• Legislature (Parliament) makes law – Ch $1$
• Executive (Governor-General + ministers) administers – Ch $2$
• Judiciary (courts; High Court) interprets – Ch $3$; independent
• Responsible government blurs legislature/executive (ministers sit in Parliament)
• Cases: s44 dual citizenship (Barnaby Joyce); High Court striking down Malaysian Solution

Federalism – Division of Powers

• Specific (enumerated) powers to Commonwealth: defence, currency, immigration, external affairs (s$51$)
• Residual powers to states: schools, police, transport, health services
• Concurrent powers shared: taxation, marriage; conflicts resolved by s$109$ – Commonwealth prevails
• COVID-19 aged-care & Ruby Princess disputes highlight overlapping responsibilities

Referenda Example

• $1999$ republic proposal failed: national majority $\approx45\%$ YES; only ACT + VIC YES → no double majority

Key Terms Quick List

• Balance of power, cabinet, backbencher, cross-bench
• Preferential voting, quota, informal vote, donkey vote
• Media watchdog, bias types, pork-barrel, scare campaign
• Specific/residual/concurrent powers, double majority, responsible government