The Progressive Era and American Imperialism

The Progressive Era

Imperialism

  • Should America become an empire?

Review: Early American Expansion

  • Guiding Principles of American Desire to Expand:
    • Monroe Doctrine: Policy established by President James Monroe asserting that any European attempt to re-establish colonial control over Latin American states would be regarded as a hostile act towards the United States.
    • Manifest Destiny: The 19th-century belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America, with a focus on controlling the Americas and achieving this goal.

Growth of the United States (1783-1853)

  • Key Territorial Acquisitions:
    • Oregon Country: Ceded by Great Britain in 1846.
    • Texan Annexation: Annexed the independent Republic of Texas in 1845.
    • Mexican Cession: Gained from Mexico through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848.
    • Louisiana Purchase: Purchased from France in 1803.
    • Gadsden Purchase: Bought from Mexico in 1853.
    • Florida Cession: Acquired from Spain in 1810-1813 and formalized in 1819 by ceding arrangements.
    • Original 13 Colonies: Acquired from Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris (1783).

Seward’s Expansion

  • Alaska (1867): Purchased from Russia by Secretary of State William Seward for $7.2 million, initially considered a diplomatic failure, known as “Seward’s Folly.”
    • Aftermath: Later discovered to have rich resources like gold and oil.
    • Seward’s Additional Ambitions: Hoped to annex Canada and Mexico for U.S. expansion.

Alfred Thayer Mahan

  • Influential Work: Published "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" in 1890, which transformed government perceptions about naval power.
    • Main Argument: Control of the seas equates to control over trade and economic prosperity.
    • Shift in Focus: American military strategy shifted from coastal defense to developing blue-water navies capable of global dominance, necessitating geopolitical control over strategic naval bases.

Annexation of Hawaii

  • Business Influence: American fruit and sugar planters held substantial power in Hawaii, fostering connections with the monarchy.
  • Queen Lili’uokalani: Took the throne in 1874 but distanced Hawaii from previous advantageous agreements.
  • Coup: “The Hawaiian pear is now fully ripe, and this is the golden hour for the United States to pluck it,” stated John L. Stevens (American ambassador).
    • Actions Taken: American business owners, collaborating with Stevens, surrounded the queen’s palace with troops and established Sanford Dole as governor in a coup recognized by the U.S. in 1898.

Spanish-American War

  • Pre-War Context: Revolts in remaining Spanish colonies spurred U.S. intervention; Spanish governor Weyler's reconcentration policy intensified American public sentiment through yellow journalism.
  • U.S.S. Maine Incident: The battleship exploded in Havana harbor in February 1898, leading American media to blame Spanish sabotage, prompting a declaration of war in April 1898.

Outcomes of the Spanish-American War

  • Territorial Gains: The U.S. annexed the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam but did not annex Cuba, instead claiming the right to intervene in Cuban affairs.
    • Platt Amendment: Restrictions on Cuba allowing U.S. intervention and a permanent naval base in Guantanamo Bay.

Philippine-American War

  • Background: Filipinos declared independence during the Spanish-American War; however, U.S. troops seized Manila, refusing to recognize the independence movement.
  • Conflict: Resulted in four years of insurgency and guerrilla warfare, with significant casualties (% casualties included 4,300 U.S. soldiers, 20,000+ Filipino soldiers, and over 200,000 Filipino civilians).
  • Cultural Impact: The war relationship among American colonial ambition is reflected in Kipling’s “The White Man’s Burden.”

American Anti-Imperialist League

  • Formation: Established in 1898 to protest U.S. imperialism in Hawaii, Cuba, and the Philippines. Key members included Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie.

Open Door Policy

  • Initiation: Issued by U.S. Secretary of State John Jay, advocating for free trade and equal trading rights in China amid exclusivity among competing European powers.

Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Policy

  • Overview: President Teddy Roosevelt desired enhanced U.S. influence globally and advocated for a proactive approach in foreign policy symbolized by the phrase "speak softly and carry a big stick."

Roosevelt Corollary

  • Context: Financial instability in Latin America led to fears of European intervention.
    • Establishment: This 1900 diplomatic addendum to the Monroe Doctrine justified proactive U.S. intervention in Latin American affairs as a police power, leading to actions in nations like the Dominican Republic and Panama.

Panama Canal

  • Background: Initial efforts by a French company failed (1881-1889), leading to U.S. efforts to gain control via support for Panama's independence.
  • Construction: Completed in 1914, despite challenging conditions that cost thousands of lives.
    • Aftermath: The U.S. maintained a military presence at the canal even after relinquishing control in 1977.

Boxer Rebellion

  • Context: Reaction against foreign influence in China led to violent uprisings aimed at ejecting foreign powers. U.S. troops were dispatched to suppress the movement, emphasizing America's strategic interests in trade in Asia.

Taft’s “Dollar Diplomacy”

  • Concept: Promoted U.S. investments in foreign nations to strengthen economic ties and stability without military involvement, although military interventions were still ordered to protect American investments.

Wilson’s “Moral Diplomacy”

  • Philosophy: Advocated for supporting global democracy through American ideals, resulting in increased American involvement in global affairs.

Challenges with Mexico

  • Overview: The Mexican Revolution (1910) provoked U.S. support for various factions. U.S. invasions (e.g., Veracruz in 1914) contributed to tensions, especially surrounding the actions of Pancho Villa against U.S. territories.

American Interventions in Latin America

History of U.S. Interventions in Latin America

  • Timeline of U.S. Invasions:
    • From 1890-1910, multiple troop interventions occurred in countries like Argentina, Nicaragua, and Cuba.
  • Purpose: U.S. interventions often cited protection of American interests and the pursuit of stable governance to curtail perceived threats from local revolutionary or leftist movements.

The Progressive Era

Populism and Progressivism

  • Definition of Progressivism: A broad movement supporting political and social reform, addressing issues like unsafe working conditions and living standards among urban populations.

Women’s Suffrage

  • Historical Context: After Reconstruction, women such as Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton spearheaded the movement for women's voting rights, coinciding with societal shifts promoting female political engagement.
  • Milestone Legislation: The Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920 granted women the right to vote, following state-by-state campaigns and significant labor support during WWI.
  • Key Organizations: NAWSA (led by Carrie Chapman Catt) and NWP (led by Alice Paul) represented differing strategies in pursuing women’s suffrage, with movements advocating for constitutional amendments.

Progressive Reforms

  • Temperance Movement: Rise of organizations aimed at reducing alcohol consumption; Carrie A. Nation became a notable activist.
  • Settlement Houses: Established by women like Jane Addams to support urban immigrants and the impoverished through education and community services.
  • National Consumers League: Fought for fair labor practices in production, spearheaded by figures like Addams and Florence Kelley.
  • Birth Control Movement: Margaret Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in 1916, challenging prevailing laws against contraceptives.

Societal Changes during the Progressive Era

  • Middle-Class Influence: Concerns of the middle class led to demands for government reforms and greater control over corporations.
  • Government Reforms: Passage of amendments for direct election of senators and primary elections, aimed to limit the power of political machines.

Challenges of War and Isolationism

  • Impact of WWI: Shifts in labor and economic roles for women and minorities due to the war further complicated the fight for equality.
  • Influenza Pandemic of 1918: Struck globally, exacerbating existing socio-economic challenges, killing millions.

Racial Tensions and Violence

  • Red Summer of 1919: Notable race riots across America reflected heightened racial tensions, spurred by the Great Migration and the societal changes resulting from WWI.

Key Incidents

  • Chicago Race Riots: Triggered by the death of Eugene Williams.
  • Elaine, Arkansas Massacre: Conflict between black sharecroppers and white mobs leading to mass atrocities.
  • Tulsa Race Massacre (1921): Bombings and mass violence decimated Greenwood, a prominent African American community.

Conclusion

  • Progressive Movement Legacy: While the Progressive Era addressed numerous social issues, it also uncovered deep-seated racial and class tensions, leading to continued struggles for civil rights in the ensuing decades.