AP BIO CRAM

🧬 AP BIOLOGY MASTER VOCAB + CORE NOTES

🧬 CELL CYCLE (Unit 4)

Cell cycle;Ordered series of events in which a cell grows, replicates DNA, and divides
Interphase;Includes G1, S, and G2 phases (cell growth + DNA replication)

G1 phase;Cell grows and performs normal functions
S phase;DNA replication occurs, forming sister chromatids
G2 phase;Cell prepares for mitosis and checks for DNA damage

M phase;Cell division phase (mitosis + cytokinesis)

Cell cycle checkpoint;Control system that halts cycle if errors (DNA damage, spindle issues) occur

CDK (cyclin-dependent kinase);Enzyme that regulates cell cycle progression by phosphorylating target proteins
Cyclin;Protein that binds and activates CDKs

p53;Tumor suppressor protein that triggers DNA repair, cell cycle arrest, or apoptosis

🧬 MITOSIS (SOMATIC CELLS)

Mitosis;Cell division producing 2 genetically identical diploid cells for growth/repair

Prophase (mitosis);Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down
Metaphase (mitosis);Chromosomes align at cell equator
Anaphase (mitosis);Sister chromatids separate
Telophase (mitosis);Nuclear envelopes reform
Cytokinesis;Cytoplasm divides into two identical cells

🧬 MEIOSIS (GAMETE FORMATION)

Meiosis;Cell division producing 4 genetically different haploid gametes

Purpose of meiosis;Increase genetic diversity and reduce chromosome number

Meiosis I (reduction division)

Prophase I;Homologous chromosomes pair (synapsis); crossing over occurs
Crossing over;Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes
Metaphase I;Homologous pairs align randomly (independent assortment)
Anaphase I;Homologous chromosomes separate
Telophase I;Two haploid cells form

Independent assortment;Random distribution of homologous chromosomes into gametes

Meiosis II (equational division)

Prophase II;Chromosomes condense again
Metaphase II;Chromosomes align individually
Anaphase II;Sister chromatids separate
Telophase II;4 genetically unique haploid cells form

🧬 DNA + GENE EXPRESSION (Unit 6)

DNA;Double-stranded molecule that stores genetic information

Gene;Segment of DNA that codes for a functional product (protein or RNA)

Transcription;DNA → mRNA (in nucleus)
Translation;mRNA → protein (at ribosome)

RNA polymerase;Enzyme that synthesizes mRNA from DNA template

Promoter;DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to start transcription

RNA processing

Introns;Noncoding regions removed from pre-mRNA
Exons;Coding regions that remain in mRNA
Spliceosome;Complex that removes introns and joins exons

Mutations

Mutation;Change in DNA sequence

Silent mutation;No change in amino acid sequence
Missense mutation;One amino acid changes
Nonsense mutation;Stop codon created early
Frameshift mutation;Insertion/deletion shifts reading frame

⚡ ENZYMES (Unit 3)

Enzyme;Biological catalyst that lowers activation energy

Active site;Region where substrate binds

Substrate;Reactant an enzyme acts on

Denaturation;Loss of enzyme structure and function due to heat or pH change

Enzyme inhibition

Competitive inhibition;Inhibitor binds active site → increases Km, no change in Vmax
Noncompetitive inhibition;Inhibitor binds allosteric site → decreases Vmax

Allosteric site;Regulatory site separate from active site

Saturation;All enzyme active sites are occupied → reaction rate plateaus

⚡ CELLULAR RESPIRATION (Unit 3)

Cellular respiration;Process of converting glucose into ATP using oxygen

Stages

Glycolysis;Glucose → 2 pyruvate (cytoplasm); produces ATP + NADH

Pyruvate oxidation;Pyruvate → acetyl-CoA + CO₂ + NADH

Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle);Produces CO₂, NADH, FADH₂

Electron transport chain (ETC);Produces most ATP; oxygen is final electron acceptor

NADH;Electron carrier that delivers electrons to ETC
ATP synthase;Enzyme that produces ATP using proton gradient

🌿 PHOTOSYNTHESIS (Unit 3)

Photosynthesis;Conversion of light energy into chemical energy (glucose)

Stages

Light reactions;Produce ATP + NADPH; occur in thylakoid membrane
Photosystem II;Splits water, starts electron flow
Photosystem I;Produces NADPH

Calvin cycle;Uses CO₂ + ATP + NADPH to build glucose (in stroma)

🌱 ECOLOGY (Unit 8)

Ecology;Study of interactions between organisms and environment

Trophic level;Position in food chain

Energy pyramid;Energy decreases at higher trophic levels

Natural selection;Individuals with advantageous traits reproduce more

Fitness;Reproductive success

Convergent evolution;Unrelated species evolve similar traits

Homologous structures;Traits inherited from common ancestor

🧬 GENETICS (Unit 5)

Allele;Alternative form of a gene

Genotype;Genetic makeup

Phenotype;Observable traits

Homozygous;Two identical alleles
Heterozygous;Two different alleles

Autosomal recessive;Trait expressed only when two recessive alleles are present

Carrier;Heterozygous individual who does not show disease

Punnett square;Diagram used to predict genetic outcomes

⚡ AP BIO MCQ + FRQ STRATEGY (HIGH VALUE)

MCQ elimination rule;Eliminate answers that are vague, absolute, or not supported by data
Graph interpretation rule;State trend first, then explain biologically
If stuck MCQ strategy;Choose answer with most specific biological terminology
FRQ structure;Claim → Evidence → Biological reasoning
Data rule;Always reference numbers, trends, or comparisons
No-answer rule;Never leave blank—write related correct biology even if unsure