Lecture 7 Part 2

Discussion started by addressing questions from Christy and Richard.
First hour of the lecture focused on Etruscan terracotta warriors as examples of forgeries in museum collections.
The objective was to demonstrate the history of forgeries recognized in museums worldwide.
Transition to examining pre-Columbian forgeries, emphasizing the universality of forgery in various cultures across the globe.

The term "pre-Columbian" refers to the period before 1492 before European colonization began in The Americas.
Major cultural areas discussed include:
- Mexico
- Guatemala
- Belize
- Peru
Key civilizations mentioned include:
- Maya
- Aztecs
- Inca
- Nazca
Overview of terracotta sculptures as a prominent part of their cultural heritage.
Active forgery practices still ongoing, originating as early as the Spanish conquest.

Spanish conquest involved missionaries aiming to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity.
Indigenous cultures faced threats to their beliefs, leading to:
- Destruction of cult idols by missionaries.
- Creation of fake idols by indigenous populations to protect actual sacred objects.
This practice dates back to approximately the 1500s, illustrating a long history of responding to colonial pressures through forgery.

Introduction of Rigdolera from Veracruz, Mexico.
Transitioned from a forger to a reformed individual who provides insights into the functioning of forgery rings in Mexico.
Importance of understanding his experiences as part of the forgery narrative.
Discussion of how Rigdolera began forging at a young age, influenced by:
- Looters requesting restoration of broken items.
- Working in a forgery workshop in Mexico City.

The black market encompasses all illegal sales, including illegal artifacts.
It operates outside official monitoring, similar to the concept of the dark web.
Focus on deliberate deception to buyers as a defining factor.

Rigdolera’s mastery of ancient tools and pigments to avoid detection.
Practices included:
- Creating age effects on artifacts through specific recipes involving lime, hot sugar, water, urine, dirt, and glue.
- Incorporating individual creativity to replicate the unique variations found in authentic ancient artworks.
Ability to produce convincing forgeries that fetched high prices, estimated in the tens of thousands of dollars.

Rigdolera’s downfall stemmed from charges related to smuggling authentic artifacts.
His defense claimed the items he was accused of smuggling were forgeries.
After proving his status as a forger, the smuggling charges were dropped, leading to a sentence for a different conviction.
Offered a chance at redemption, he began working at the anthropology museum, focusing on restoring and replicating artifacts clearly marked as replicas.
Replica sales generated significant revenue, reaching as high as $13,000 USD.

The Mexican anthropology museum's efforts towards repatriating artifacts from around the world.
Discovery of Rigdolera's forged items amongst returned artifacts, linking back to the themes of desire for new acquisitions by museums.
In the 1950s, North American collectors developed a strong interest in pre-Columbian artifacts, leading to Rigdolera's products being sold as genuine in major art institutions (e.g., Dallas Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art).

The shift to discussing the James Ossuary, an artifact showcased at a conference in 2002 involving Herschel Shanks and Oded Galan.
Explanation of ossuaries as repositories for bones in Jewish burial practices, especially around Jerusalem in first centuries BCE and CE.
Description of the James Ossuary, highlighting its potential connection to Jesus through its inscription:
- Inscribed in Aramaic, with translations indicating it could belong to James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus.
Raised questions about authenticity, with statistical analysis suggesting 1.71 possible individuals fitting this description during that time.
Skepticism surrounding the methodology of this statistical study remains unanswered among scholars.

The James Ossuary went on public display at the Royal Ontario Museum (ROM), attracting significant attention (nearly 100,000 visitors).
Criticism arose concerning the museum’s ethical obligations versus potential financial incentives derived from the exhibit.
The failure to properly package the artifact led to damage during transport, causing a notable crack through the inscription.

By 2003, the Israeli Antiquities Authority deemed the inscription to be fake, leading to investigations and arrests related to forgery and fraud.
Diverse expert opinions during the trial created confusion over the inscription’s authenticity, leading to an extended legal battle lasting around seven years.

In 2012, the trial concluded with acquittals on forgery charges due to contradictory expert testimonies.
The only conviction related to the illegal sale of antiquities, emphasizing the difficulty in resolving authenticity disputes in cases like the James Ossuary.
Ongoing debate regarding the authenticity persists in academic circles and media, reflecting unresolved issues in the broader context of art forgery and antiquities trade.