MASSIVE INTERNATIONAL HISTORY TIMELINE
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Britain pioneered the wave of INDUSTRIALIZATION, thus led to mass production, which meant European powers needed to find new sources of raw materials and new markets. They had to go to other places to sell the finished products to protect their country's economy. They began to COMPETE for resources and overseas possessions. Guaranteed markets meant guaranteed political and economic power over that region, a necessary thing after THE LONG DEPRESSION. Power, prestige, and influence were driving motivators for the countries of Britain, France, and Germany. GROWTH OF NATIONALISM means people will support anything that can make them be seen as better. They hate looking weak.
The introduction of industrialization meant the formation of the working-class, There were angry people within this class that demanded social, economic, and political reform. They eventually rioted and to reduce the threat of a coup, politicians had to lie and say they were making imperialism great for everyone. This is known as IMPERIALISM AS SOCIAL POLICY. Overseas possessions acted as symbols of national pride. Before 1869, there was danger in travelling around Africa's southern tip. This meant difficulty expanding trade in the Far East. Medical advancements made by Europeans (French with Quinine in 1817) allowed them to safely enter Africa and live to tell the tale. Fear faded about entering Africa. Technological advancements made (railways, steamships, telegraphs, fast-firing rifles) had made it easier for imperial nations to control their possessions (physical ones and also the African people). Britain then went on to slowly immigrate to Cape Colony and take control over it due to the building of the Suez Canal financed by Britain and France’s entrepreneurs from 1859-69. The new trade route had made travel easy as it linked the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea. This STRATEGIC CONTROL OF KEY REGIONS further enabled the European imperial powers to expand their markets, raise investments, and increase overall powers of production.
1814 - Cape Colony taken over by Britain
1820 - British migration to Cape Colony
1834 - British abolish slavery in Cape Colony
Through 1820 to 1834, Britain put in a new tax system. The Dutch, AKA Boers, had less income and paid more for things after slavery was abolished, farmers couldn't make a lot of money because they were dependent on slave labor. They didn't receive enough compensation, and they hated British rule so much that they left Cape Colony from 1835 to 1840. They moved to Great Trek to form Transvaal and Orange Free State.
1877 - Transvaal and Orange Free State were gold and diamond rich, so the British attempted to convince them to join Cape Colony in a federation. They wanted the riches. The Boers declined and Britain figured they had no choice but to claim control over both of the territories forcefully. The Boers caused an uproar but quickly calmed down due to threat of going to war with the Zulu Kingdom.
Maintaining control of Cape Colony involved constant border wars with native tribes during the 19th century. Reoccurring conflict with the Xhosa had occurred during Dutch control of the colony and lasted until 1879. Zulus had stomped out a good proportion of the Xhosas. They took over their tribe.
1879 - The Anglo-Zulu War
An easy victory after the Zulus used a lot of their resources.
Through the Anglo-Zulu War, Britain’s victory had weakened them. Now that the threat of going to war with the Zulus was removed, the Boers fought back and to claim their independence from Britain.
1880-1881 - The First Boer War.
Boers win against Britain who were unprepared.
1881 - The Pretoria Convention. Granted Transvaal and Orange Free State the ability to self-governed with oversight from Britain. This means that they are allowed to keep Britain military presence in the region and protect from foreign invasion. This way only Britain could benefit.
1886 - Transvaal Discoveries.
Further discoveries of gold deposits in Transvaal brought many new settlers, mostly British. These newcomers were denied political and economic rights by the Transvaal president, Paul Kruger.
The Failed Jameson Raid of 1895 - Cecil Rhodes, British Prime Minister, hoped that the settlers in the region would rebel against the Transvaal government, providing justification for an invasion. The intention was for pro-British forces - led by Leander Starr Jameson - to go to the assistance of the rebelling settlers. The Boers had easily drove them back.
Other European nations resented this attempted British invasion of what they regarded as a small, independent nation. In particular, this was to lead to increased tension between Britain and Germany. Kaiser Wilhelm II sent a telegram to Kruger, congratulating him on defeating the raiders. Britain intercepted this telegram and reacted angrily.
This marks the start of bad Anglo-German relations. Also, past issues with increased German prestige against Britain during the wave of industrialization as they joined in with the Zollverein custom union and railways during the second half of the 19th century.
1899-1902 - The Second Boer War
4 years after the Jameson raid, Kruger demands a withdrawal of British troops and full independence for Transvaal. Britain refuses to give in to this demand. They don't want to get out, so Kruger declares war. The Boers and the British are evenly matched until British reinforcements arrive. They successfully capture Transvaal’s capital, Pretoria, in 1900. throughout the three years of war, the Boers adopted guerrilla tactics, while the British combated them with scorched earth and concentration camps. The Boers were equipped with German Mauser rifles which caused further anger in Britain.
1902- The Treaty of Vereeniging.
Handed all of Transvaal and Orange Free State over to Britain. Britain lost two $200 million.
Around this time, Angela German relations were strained, while Anglo French relations had started to form. EU Nations had viewed Britain's military tactics as unnecessary and distanced themselves as allies to Britain after they won. Germany especially thought the scorched earth tactics as well as a concentration camps, were inhumane.
1898 - Britain’s claims to Egypt and Sudan are recognized by France, France’s claim to Morocco is recognized by Britain
1904 - Entente Cordiale
Britain needed to drop their splendid isolation viewpoint and search for a good ally ship to protect them against future conflicts since they were now vulnerable in 1888. Weltpolitik implemented by the Kaiser Germany made the French desperate to find an ally because they were vulnerable after their loss in the Franco-Prussian War. The two countries moved to Germany, decided to sign the Entente Cordial, which settled their disputes of land in Fashoda, Sudan and protected themselves. Two powers will be stronger against one power.
Germany have been trying to build an empire graded in Britain. The signing of the Anton Cordial compromised their goal of overpowering the country's. Jeremy's response is not. to take down both France and Britain. the Kaiser hoped to use France's claimable Morocco to weaken their relationship
March 1905 - Wilhelm makes a speech in Tangiers, Morocco to convince the people that Germany supported their independence in hopes to get them against France. As a result of this speech, Britain and France grew stronger. France’s claims held up at the Algeciras conference.
1911 - Increasingly suspicious of German intentions, Britain and France developed an even closer relationship. Kaiser Wilhelm sends a gunboat (the Panther) to the Moroccan port of Agadir, with the intention of undermining French power in the region. Britain sided with France and the kaiser backed down.
1884-1885 - The Berlin Conference
Organized by Otto Von Bismarck, who was forced to resign in 1890 by Wilhelm who was working only on nationalism and had the idea to expand, there were thirteen European nations included. The main article stated passage for all ships on Niger and Congo rivers, Africa’s interior, the abolishment of slavery, and if you wanted African territory, you had to show proof that you occupied it to other governments. This defended, administered, and prevented false claims of dibs.
CHINA RISING:
China was a well-organized and efficient economy that was lacking in adaptability. It was self-contained with no desire to trade. Chinese government had made an attempt to restrict and control foreign trade. This failed, and by the end of the 18th century, Britain began importing large amounts of opium. Overall, China was doing adequately good enough to support themselves. They had decent stores of raw materials, something that other countries did not have, and were looking for desperately. Europeans used force to take these resources. Britain then established itself as China’s primary, largest foreign training partner.
1860- Treaty of Tientsin
Legalized the import of opium and opened more ports to foreign trade.
Foreign nations came to China against their wishes, industrialized with their resources, ignored Chinese law, and received political power by exploiting them. Because of this, Chinese government got weaker, and they were ultimately unable to get to act as a major power. This comes as a result of their inability to adapt to new imperialism.
1894 - The First Sino-Japanese War
1895 - The Treaty of Shimonoseki
China forced to give up Korea, Formosa, and Port Arthur to Japan
1898-1901 - The Boxer Rebellion
Chinese government decided to support their citizens in their rebellion towards Chinese inaction to foreign invasion/influence, an eight-power alliance (Britain, Russia, Japan, France, USA, German, Italy and Austria, Hungary) took control over Peking (Beijing) and defeated the rebellion. China was then forced to pay 69 million over the course of thirty-nine years for destruction of property.
1899 - During this rebellion, European and Japanese involvement in China had triggered interest by the USA. The United States had negotiated an open-door policy with other imperial nations to access and benefit from Chinese trade equally. China had not been included in this decision.
JAPAN RISING:
Japan had limited natural resources, resulting in a push to seek overseas possessions that are motivated by the prospect of growing money in the economy. They also did not want to take the same fate as China, weak and exploited.
1853-54 - Confronted with Japan's obstinate resistance to trade, the USA sent a fleet of ships under the command of Commodore Perry. When the Japanese demanded that the ships leave, Perry turned his guns towards the town of Uraga. He demanded permission to deliver a letter from US President Fillmore, which made it clear that the USA expected trading access to Japan.
1854 - Japan signed a treaty that allowed the USA trading access to two ports.
1858 - Japanese signed another treaty that allowed foreigners access to more ports and designated cities within Japan.
The purpose for their involvement in the First Sino-Japanese War was to test the military and see if they had industrialized properly. However, after gaining Port Arthur from China, alarm was created in Russia as they had desired Port Arthur for trade in the Far East.
Russia had employed the Triple Intervention (France, Germany, Russia) to threaten Japan into giving it back to China. Because Japan had no allies or enough needs to defend themselves, they had no option but to comply. Their attempt to gain support from Britain and the US had failed. Russia then goes on to take Port Arthur from China, exploiting their weakness and using less effort than they would if they went up against Japan. Japan forms resentment against the Triple Intervention. Japan did not want Russia to take Port Arthur and expand trade in the Far East because this would put Japan's economic stability at risk. Overall strength would decrease if they had lost Korea.
The Triple Intervention Alliance: France was afraid to be vulnerable such isolated and allied with Russia in 1894. Germany wanted Russian support down the line.)
1902 - Anglo-Japanese Alliance
Britain is currently seeking alliances after the Second Boer War. They had abandoned splendid isolation because their empire was too big to protect, and they are vulnerable after weaknesses were exposed from the Boer Wars. Britain formed the alliance in order to protect their economic and military interest.
Japan had sought out more support in potential war with Russia. They also wanted to be recognized as a major world power in the future. They figured that if they were allied with the strongest, they would be permitted access into being recognized as a major world power.
The terms of the alliance: Britain and Japan agreed to remain neutral if either country was involved in war. However, if either Britain or Japan faced war against two or more opponents, the other country would come to its aid. Britain also recognized Japanese rights in Korea, while Japan agreed to use its fleet to protect British interests in the Far East.
BUILDUP TO THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
Japan now felt strong enough to seek a settlement with Russia. The Japanese were prepared to recognize Russian rights in Manchuria in exchange for Japanese rights in Korea.
Convinced of their military superiority, the Russians refused to negotiate with the Japanese and instead invaded Korea. The Japanese response was rapid, dramatic, and devastating, sending torpedoes to answer the Russian battleships.
1904-05 - Russo-Japanese War
Japan had the advantage in the war and quickly took over Port Arthur because they, unlike Russia, could easily establish control over the local seas. Russia had to travel incredibly far with their men to attack. Britain had prevented Russia from using Suez Canal to reach Japan as quick as possible after one of the Russian ships had fired on a British fishing ship, mistaking it to be Japanese. Japan's military had clearly been stronger than Russian military, as the slow-moving and outdated Russian vessels were no match for Japan's modern warships.
September 1905 - The Treaty of Portsmouth
Japan won the war. Japan's rights over Korea were formally recognized. Russian influence in Manchuria was ended.
USA RISING:
Key Terms Because I’m Omitting Frontiers and Continental Expansion Details:
Manifest Destiny: The US believed it was their God-given right to expand, settle and take over North America. This justified continental expansion. It stemmed from a huge growth in nationalism, divine right to expand, duty to spread Christianity, and the idea that Pacific Ocean expansion was going to happen eventually.
Monroe Doctrine: Created because the US fear about hostile imperial powers would acquire territory if they did not. Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule (Not much). The US was concerned that Spain would try to win back control of its former possessions in South America. Overall, the fear of Spanish revenge might inspire Europe to act. USA promised to not interfere in European affairs, but any attempt by European power to intervene in the Americas would be seen as an act of aggression by the US and would be dealt with through military means.
Industrialization happened and they lost control of their banking systems. Basically, all that money they were making was ultimately pointless and disappeared.
Democratic and Republican Party formed to find a solution for this. Democrats were farmers that believed in pushing trade out of the US but proposed for import tariffs to be abolished as free trade would be more beneficial than domestic trade. Republicans were businessmen that proposed import tariffs remain at a high level so they can maintain their positions of power. President Mckinley at the time has believed that making America stay independent and isolated meant making them stay dominant. They will be protected against forces that would benefit more than the US as a result of our subservience.
Unlike America, Europe practiced protectionism. This meant increasing commercial involvement. They formed strong markets that the economy throughout the country (domestic) that were unable to be broken into through foreign competition (import tariffs).
The debate on how to best protect the interests of the USA was settled in Cuba.
Note: Theodore Roosevelt came in after Mckinley was assassinated. He played a major role in world affairs and unlike Mckinley, he supported US imperialism.
1860s - Why was Cuba so important to the USA? Their goods of sugar, tobacco, minerals, and nickel were useful for mass production.
Cuba was engaging in Independence Wars against Spain. In the beginning, USA remained neutral.
BUILDUP TO SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR
The US had sent the ship ‘Maine’ for protection of stuck American citizens in Cuba. The ship was exploded and resulted in 268 dead Americans. It was believed to be an accident by the US government, but the media blamed Spain heavily. Now a lot of people were beginning to see the US government as weak. The Secretary of Navy at the time, Theodore Roosevelt, prepared for war. He ordered naval vessels to occupy ports such as Manila Bay to deny Spanish ships access to safe harbors and supplies. Roosevelt wanted to test the strength of the US military against Spain.
April 1898 - The Spanish American War
Mckinley had declared war on Spain.
The Spanish were unable to resist the combined efforts of the Cuban freedom fighters (who had the advantage of knowing the land better), plus the smaller number of US soldiers that were sent over. Spain had no alternative to surrender to the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris.
Per the terms of the treaty, Spain was forced to hand over control of Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States. Niella said denied human assistance, claiming it was purely an American victory and did not include their interest into the Treaty. Now, the US had effective control of an ‘independent’ Cuba.
Acquiring the Philippines provided the USA with control of a region that could act as a strategic base to supply and defend American trading interests in China and the Far East.
At the same time, the US gained a large presence in Hawaii with their interests in sugarcane and whaling industries (1870). Pearl Harbor opened (1887) and the annexation of Hawaii ended in 1898. These all contributed to USA being recognized as an imperial power by 1914.
Not rewriting the buildup to WWI IDCCCC
President Woodrow Wilson (Democratic Party - 1912)
OK, The Buildup on USA’s Side For World War One: Basically, the US had maintained neutrality and President Wilson won a second term in 1916. Wilson had sent goods over to Britain and its allies during war, and also provided loans to them because they were pro Britain, but denied Germany access to any loans. Germany had believed that US was far from neutral and was convinced that the US was supplying Britain and their allies with military equipment. Germany had then begun regularly attacking US ships crossing the Atlantic with submarines. In 1915, the first attack without warning resulted in 120 AMERICANS killed. Wilson issued a warning to Germany and his response led to a split in the US government. Bryan, the Secretary of State, was upset and resigned because his pacifist beliefs did not align with how Wilson was warning Germany. Robert replaced him and argued that the US wouldn't be able to stay neutral in the war forever. In 1916, another US ship is attacked, and Wilson threatens Germany with breaking diplomatic relations if another ship gets sunk. At the same time, Britain had intercepted a German telegram instructing the German ambassador in Mexico to invade the US. It made an offer with the Mexican ambassador to get back territories that were under US control. Britain had made the US ambassador in London aware that American interests were now threatened. Because Wilson perceived this as an active threat against America, US declared war on Germany on April 1917.
1918 - Wilson's 14 points Declared
Concerned about opposition to the war, Wilson created a Committee on Public Information with the aim of promoting the Pro-War effort. Within this, Wilson pushed anti German propaganda, pushed for a need to protect commercial interests, desire to protect American trade, and attempt to protect from the European involvement/intervention to justify his shift in foreign policy to confused Americans.
As a result of World War One, America had become the greatest financial power in the world. They expanded to South America and the Far East and there was no fighting on American soil. America was considered a most powerful world power by 1919.
RUSSIA whatever is going on with them POST WWI
The new Russian leader, Lenin Bolshevik, desperately tried to establish his Bolshevik government, believing that it was essential for Russia to end its involvement in the First World War.
Wilson had hoped his 14 points speech would encourage Russia to remain in the war and, at the same time, urge Germany to seek a peace settlement.
March 1918 - Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Treaty with Germany signed by Lenin that caused Russia to lose Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia and Finland - areas containing much of Russia's best farmland, raw materials and heavy industry. In the event, Russia lost 25% of its population, 25% of its industry and 90% of its coal mines.
January 1919 - Beginning of the Paris Peace Talks
Representatives of nearly 30 victorious nations met at Versailles, near Paris, to discuss a settlement that would finally end the First World War and, in the words 'prevent a recurrence of it'.
Council of Four, consisting of President Woodrow Wilson (USA), Prime Minister David Lloyd George (Britain), Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau (France) and Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando (Italy) changed once it became clear that Italy would not receive all of its territorial claims, Orlando temporarily withdrew the Italian delegation from the conference in anger. As a result, the main decisions were taken by the 'Big Three'.
It was largely at France’s insistence for Russia to not be included in the Paris Peace talks after Russia refused to pay French debts and robbed France of a potential ally.
The Treaty of Versailles came out of the Paris Peace Conference, inflicting harsh negotiations onto Germany without their involvement. Failure to sign this treaty would have meant the continuation of war and an attack on Germany itself. In committing to a peace process, they had already abolished the monarchy and pulled back the army - they were in no position to renew fighting.
June 28, 1919 - Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles
Germany saw a loss of some 70,000 square kilometres (27,000 square miles) of land, containing some 7 million people.The country was geographically split in two by the 'Polish Corridor', and had lost control of the major industrial region in the Saar, getting economically and politically devasted. German armaments were limited to a maximum of 100 000 troops, with no tanks, military aircraft or submarines, and a maximum of six battleships. This was intended to weaken Germany's armed forces so much that it could not pose a threat to other European countries in the future. For the same reason, Anschluss (union) between Germany and Austria was forbidden in an effort to prevent the two German-speaking countries uniting (causing more political division). A further devastating term of the Treaty of Versailles was the 'War Guilt Clause'. This blamed Germany and its allies for the outbreak of the First World War, and allowed the victorious nations to impose reparations for the damage the war had caused. Imposing reparations on Germany was also intended to economically weaken the country so that it could not threaten other countries in the future. (France jumping for joy)
March 1919 - Comintern
1919-1920 - The Red Scare (US)
Other Treaties That Came From the Conference:
September 1919 - The Treaty of Saint-Germain
Signed with Austria and made them lose land to Czech, Italy, Romania, Poland, Yugoslavia, and Herzegovina
November 1919 - The Treaty of Neuilly
Bulgaria lost territory to Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania, had to reduce its army to no more than 20,000, and was instructed to pay reparations of over $400 million.
August 1920 - Treaty of Sèvres
Turkey lost territory to Greece and Italy. Other parts of the former Turkish Empire were mandated to France (Syria) and Britain (Palestine, Iran and Transjordan). The treaty also stated that the Dardanelles were to be permanently open to all shipping.
The Treaty of Trianon
Hungary gives up Slovakia and Ruthenia to become part of Czechoslovakia. Hungary also lost Transylvania to Romania, and Croatia and Slovenia to Yugoslavia.
Reoccurring Issue: Post Reparations Committee of 1921, the heaviest burden in terms of reparation payments fell on Germany, which was instructed to pay a total of 6.6 billion. The German representatives at meetings of the Reparations Commission were horrified. They argued that, with the German economy devastated during the First World War, the country was in no position to meet such demands. Germany argued this constantly.
Start of Russian Isolation: Russia was not invited to send representatives to the peace conference and was not consulted at all about the terms of the settlement. France and Britain argued that having withdrawn from the First World War by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Russia had no right to attend the conference. Moreover, fearful of revolution spreading, the Western powers refused to have any diplomatic relations with Russia's Bolshevik government. This left Russia feeling increasingly isolated, and much of its former territory divided up amongst newly created nations had added to this feeling.
President Wilson’s involvement in the Paris Peace Conference had resulted in public opinion in the USA to be largely opposed to the settlement (he was too). Many Americans believed that its terms were too harsh on Germany and that this would cause resentment and encourage the desire for revenge. Most argued that to support the settlement and, in particular, to join the League of Nations, would inevitably involve the USA in future wars. The US Senate, dominated by Wilson's Republican political opponents, refused to ratify the peace settlement, and the USA subsequently signed its own separate treaty with Germany. Despite Wilson’s involvement in the creation of the League of Nations as well, by the time he had returned to America, it was already decided by the Senate for the US to return to its policy of isolationism and not have the US be a member of the League.
Lloyd George agreed with the reparations but wanted to keep them low. This way the countries could bounce back and support British economy, especially Germany.
Clemenceau demanded compensation for the damage, which meant high reparations. This was to keep Germany weak and stop them from attacking France.
Problems in 'successor states' created by the post-war settlements:
Ethnic difficulties, cultural difficulties, arguments over borders, and economic and political instability. Yugoslavia was still weak and vulnerable and heavily dependent on western loans which pushed them further into economic instability. Poland was able to become an independent nation in June of 1919. It was difficult for them to have true democracy because of population division between the Polish and the German speaking people and political division as a result of their 14 political parties. This made them weaker and in 1926, a military coup was performed and a dictator now ruled over Poland.
1921 - Treaty of Riga
A strip of land was added to widen Poland's eastern border after the Battle of Warsaw between Poland and Ukraine.
Czech contained German-speaking populations. They were able to keep a Democratic system of government because they were blessed with raw materials, rich agricultural land, and productive industries in Sudetenland, Moravia and Bohemia.
Austria was struggling badddd but Anschluss with Germany was strictly forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles.
1923 - Ruhr Occupation
Because Germany was unable to pay reparations due to their economic status, France and Belgium sent their troops to occupy the Ruhr to get coal and timber and make up for the lack of repayment. The Ruhr acted as one of Germanys most important industrial regions. Germany reacted to this by ordering a policy of passive resistance, effectively paralyzing industry in the Ruhr as miners refused to work. These actions affected France and Belgium because they failed to seize goods from German factories and mines. They cannot get the money from Germany to repair the war damages. Germany was unable to output German goods for a profit in their most vital industrial region, resulting in a catastrophic decline in Germany's economy amid German hyperinflation. France’s relations with Britain were severely damaged as a result of their occupation which made France feel even more isolated and insecure.
Post WW1 Italy saw disorder. Their cost of living increased, unemployment was high, there was high inflation, and strikes organized by trade unions in 1919-1920 descended into rioting and looting. Council had been established to manage these outbreaks, but an Italian Communist Party was created in 1921.
1919 - Benito Mussolini forms (and leads) the Italian Fascist Party. Its supporters were those that feared communism (industrialists, landowners, middle-class property owners, the Roman Catholic Church, and King Victor Emmanuel- who asked Mussolini to create a fascist government in 1922 and resulted in Italy becoming a fascist state.)
With fascism brought aggressive and violent actions such as regularly attacking communists. Aggressive nationalism was a huge characteristic of fascism.
Mussolini had the goal of making Italy great, respected, and feared. Wanted Italy to be recognized as a major world power.
March 1923 - Italian troops took possession of the Adriatic Port of Fiume
August 1923 - Four Italian troops were killed while engaging with the LoN while attempting to resolve a border dispute between Greece and Albania. Mussolini believed Greece to be responsible for these deaths and ordered his troops to occupy the Greek island of Corfu, refusing to accept the League’s authority Italian troops stayed there until they received compensation.
1921 - Germany recognizes the Russian Bolshevik government as legitimate
1921-1922 - The Washington Conference
Was formed by the USA with the aims of reducing tensions in the Far East and preventing a naval arms race.
Four Power Treaty: (Britain, France, Japan, USA)
All four countries agreed to respect each other’s rights in the Pacific Ocean
Deal with issues through negotiation rather than military involvement
Ends Anglo-Japanese Alliance
Britain was embarrassed by this alliance because Britain’s naval rivalry with Germany no longer existed and because now, any conflict between the US and Japan would require Britain to side with Japan.
Five Power Treaty:(Britain, France, Japan, Italy, USA)
Japan agrees to withdraw from some of its territory in China
Japan limits their military size to 3/5 of Britain’s and the US
Western powers agree to not build naval bases near Japan
All five countries agree to limit their warship tonnage.
Nine Power Treaty: (Britain, France, Japan, Italy, USA, China, Portugal, Belgium, & The Netherlands)
Guaranteed China protection against invasion
Agreed to uphold open-door policy
Flaws: Five power treaty ultimately created a naval arms race as there was not specificity in the types of shipping limited. To make up for what the ships were lacking in strength, more cruiser ships were built. The treaties also did not specify what action would be taken if a country violated any of the agreements.
April 10, 1922-May 19, 1922 - The Genoa Conference
Lloyd George gathered 30 representatives from European countries in Genoa, Italy to discuss a solution to Europe’s post-war economic instability. He figured that the key to stability for all of Europe was to include ALL OF EUROPE in the solution—this meant including Russia and Germany. France did not react kindly to this notion because they feared a revival of German power. Germany maintained their vested interest in restoring German trading links and Germany’s reparations were bringing down overall European economic stability. Germany quickly withdrew from the meeting due to France’s inability to compromise. Nothing came out of the conference, but after Germany had withdrawn, Russia did too. They were also feeling isolated, but they sensed an opportunity to finally gain a valuable ally.
April 16, 1922 - The Rapallo Pact/Treaty of Rapallo
Russia and Germany sign this treaty, agreeing to renounce all territorial claims against each other (seen in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk). They also promise to economically benefit each other. Trade between the two increased, Germany evaded the ToV by building factories and military equipment in Russia (not in German land, doesn’t count). Germany also organized military training for Russia and helping them modernize their military.
The signing of this treaty obviously had resulted in alarm bells throughout the European countries (Poland and France especially!) The Poles were aware that Germany and Russia claimed parts of the territory that compromised post WW1 Poland. Germany to the west of them and Russia to the east put Poland’s security under more of a threat and their hopes of territorial expansion at the expense of Germany and Russia were put to a stop.
1923 - The Treaty of Lausanne
The formally revised version of the Treaty of Sevres. Meeting in Lausanne, Switzerland, Turkish representatives argued until an agreement was reached, and Turkey was recognized as an independent Republic of Turkey. They no longer needed to pay reparations. This marks the end of the first successful challenge to the Paris Peace settlements.
The common meeting spot of Switzerland seemed to symbolize the desire for peace. A neutral country that had taken no part in the First World War. Switzerland was also the base for the International Red Cross.
Main source for European debt: US loans and their refusal to cancel them. Added onto other economic stress.
August 1924 - American banker Charles Dawes was called to help address the issues of European countries struggling to pay back their loans. The conference was attended by Britain, Belgium, France, and Italy. This effectively forced French and Belgian troops out of the Ruhr, restructured Germany’s reparation payments in a more manageable way for them, restructured the German bank (Reichsbank) and put it under supervision of the other countries attending the meeting, and gifted Germany a sizeable US loan to help stabilize their economy and meet reparation requirements.
The gold standard: a monetary system by which the value of a currency is directly linked to the value of gold.
Countries had left the gold standard to finance their war effort and to allow themselves to print more paper money, but this severely weakened the value of their currencies and led to inflation. When economic confidence was restored and entrepreneurs and businessmen could confidently trust in their capital again, members of the public provided governments with loans by purchasing bonds with guaranteed interest rates.
1925 - Britain had returned to the gold standard
1926 - France had returned to the gold standard
1927 - Italy had returned to the gold standard
1928 - virtually all of the world's nations had returned to the gold standard
Because the US was lending all these loans, they did not struggle economically and instead saw an economic boom - a period referred to as 'the Roaring
Twenties', characterized by a massive rise in consumerism.
1925 - The Locarno Conference
Located in the resort of Locarno in Switzerland. The most significant outcome of the Locarno Conference was that Germany, France, and Belgium promised to respect their joint frontiers. This meant that the borders agreed at the Paris Peace Conference were jointly confirmed and accepted. No military action could be taken unless it was defensive.
The Treaty of Mutual Guarantee also came out of the conference stating that Britain and Italy would come to the defense/assistance of any country facing an act of aggression/violation related to the agreements made at Locarno. This ultimately gave France the security from Germany that they desperately desired.
While at Locarno, Mussolini performed friendly and more diplomatic approaches with his counterparts, hoping to forge effective relations with Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium. He knew he had to tread carefully as the only fascist nation because behaving too aggressively could lead to Italy being isolated. At this point, Italy was successfully respected, even though they were not yet great or- feared.
Gustav Stresemann, German foreign minister, was the leading factor in the creation of a Locarno Conference. He readily accepted all of Germany’s losses in the ToV. Because of this, an effective working relationship had developed between Aristide Briand, the French foreign minister, and Gustav Stresemann.
Germany was thus permitted to be accepted as a member of the LoN in 1926.
1926 - Treaty of Berlin
Extends the Treaty of Rapallo another 5 years
Flaws: The Locarno Treaties gave no guarantees regarding Germany's borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia. Moreover, it was clear that Britain was not fully committed to taking military action to enforce the agreements made at Locarno. Britain's responsibilities were limited by clauses requiring aggrieved nations to make an initial appeal to the League of Nations. If they didn’t do this, nothing would be done.
1927 - Briand proposes the Kellog-Briand Pact
Kellog, US Secretary of State, and US President Coolidge were asked by Briand to outlaw war between the two of them. Despite the agreements made at Locarno, France was still insecure.
1928-1929 - Kellogg-Briand Pact
Concerned this agreement might force the US to intervene in the event of France being threatened in the future, the US instead extended this to any countries wishing to be involved.
Flaws: The pact contained no indication of what steps might be taken against any country that broke its agreement. The lack of clarity essentially made it worthless. The US had only signed ont he understanding that it retained the right to self-defense and wouldn’t be required to take action against any nation breaking the agreement.
1929 - The Young Plan
Because the US realized that once Germany paid their reparation payments, they would be unable to afford its interest payments on American loans. American banker Owen Young meets to discuss the lowering of Germany’s reparation payment. Now, Germany only needed to pay 2 billion. In addition, the international controls over the German economy that had been established by the Dawes Plan were dismantled (Reischbank).
Both Britain and France had realized that Germany's ability to pay any reparations at all was entirely dependent on American loans. As a result, they had little alternative but to agree with the US-inspired Young Plan.
1924-1929: France adopted a conciliatory approach to Germany even though they maintained a deep distrust for them. They made a ‘Little Entente’ throughout 1921-1927 with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia to protect themselves. France pushed for the development of the LoN. Ultimately both of these things were weak and the LoN lacked power/authority to settle anything besides minor issues.
Britain, like France, was deeply suspicious of Russia. This was despite their diplomatic relations first established in 1921. They feared that the USSR was encouraging independence movements in the British-ruled India which led to them breaking off diplomatic relations in 1927. These were later restored in a trading agreement in 1929.
US was a nosy isolationist, not truly dissolved from world affairs. The US had a vested interest in the recovery of European economies because it meant they would be compensated with the repayment of war debts from their allies. They would also be provided with enhanced markets for American export. The USA did not establish diplomatic relations with the USSR until 1933.
The Russians themselves still resented the fact that they had not been allowed to attend the Paris Peace Conference or join the League of Nations, an organization they increasingly perceived as simply a means of preserving the international power and influence of Britain and France.
June 28, 1919 - League of Nations formally established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles.
How the LoN worked to ensure WW1 was the last war: Promoting disarmament, abolishing secret diplomacy, implementing arbitration, and developing collective security.
Wilson believed that the main cause of WW1 was secret diplomacy. This led to the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance. Any future treaty entered into by a member of the League would need to be registered and published by the League before it goes into effect.
Arbitration: the settling of a dispute between two parties by the League.
Collective security: the idea that if any member state of the League was threatened, all the other member states would work together to defend it. They would do so by deploying economic sanctions or if that failed, joint military action.
The two ways the LoN administered the post-war peace settlements: arranging plebiscites and organizing mandates.
Plebiscites: For example, the Treaty of Versailles determined that the Saar Valley should be administered by the League of Nations for a period of 15 years, after which a plebiscite would be held so that local people could decide for themselves whether the area should belong to France or Germany. In 1935, the League of Nations duly arranged this plebiscite and the Saar region voted to return to Germany (of course).
Mandates: In the cases where it was felt that colonies that had been taken away from defeated nations in WW1 were not yet ready for full independence, their administration would be entrusted to another country (known as the Mandatory) appointed by the League of Nations.
Sections of the League: The General Assembly, The Council, The Secretariat, The Permanent Court of International Justice, and commissions and committees
General Assembly: Met annually in Geneva, Switzerland. The Assembly's main role was to decide general policy, to deal with the admission of new members of the League, and to handle the organization's finances. Any decision taken by the Assembly had to be unanimous.
The Council: Main function was to settle political disputes between nations. It held four ordinary sessions each year, with extra meetings (known as extraordinary sessions) being called in times of emergency. Decisions taken by the Council had to be unanimous. The Council was also made up of permanent and non-permanent members. Permanent members were the original four (Britain, France, Italy, Japan), and non-permanent members were elected every three years by the Assembly.
The Secretariat: Prepared agenda, published reports, and dealt with vital routine matters. It was also based in Geneva.
The Permanent Court: Designed to deal with legal disputes between states.
Commissions and committees: Established by the League of Nations to deal with specific problems. The main commissions dealt with issues such as the mandates, disarmament, refugees and slavery. There were committees for matters relating to international labor, health, child welfare, drug problems and women's rights.
PRO 1920 - Teschen
With its rich deposits of coal, the Teschen area had been one of the wealthiest and most industrialized regions of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1919, violence erupted between Czechoslovakia and Poland, which both claimed the region. The League split the region between the two countries and ceased fighting between the countries even though they weren’t happy.
CON 1920 - Vilna
A dispute arose between Poland and Lithuania, two countries whose borders had been defined by the Paris Peace Settlement. Vilna was the capital of Lithuania, but had a predominantly Polish population. nIn 1920, Polish troops occupied the city. Following a request by Lithuania, the League of Nations ordered Poland to remove its forces and tried to arrange a plebiscite to decide the region's future. Although the Polish government initially agreed, it subsequently reinforced its troops in Vilna, and in 1922 annexed the city and its surrounding area. The key to understanding the League's failure in this case is the role played by Britain and France, both of which supported Poland's claim to Vilna. France in particular was keen to keep Poland as an ally in the event of any future conflict with Germany. Without the support of these two major powers, the League of Nations was powerless to enforce its decision (because votes needed to be unanimous and they were permanent members)
PRO 1921 - The Åland Islands
A group of some 6500 islands situated midway between Sweden and Finland. Although the population of the islands was exclusively Swedish-speaking, the Åland Islands had belonged to Finland since the early 1900s. Most inhabitants wanted the islands to become part of Sweden, but Finland was reluctant to lose sovereignty over them. The League of Nations decided that the islands should remain with Finland. Both Finland and Sweden accepted the League's decision, and the threat of war was averted.
PRO 1921 - Upper Silesia
The people of Upper Silesia, an important industrial region, were divided over whether they wished to be part of Germany or Poland. There were a series of local riots that broke out between 1919 and 1921, causing the League to get involved. The League decided to divide this area between the two which was accepted by Germany, Poland, and the Upper Silesians.
PRO 1921 - The Yugoslavia-Albania Border Dispute
There were ongoing disputes between the two countries over territory on their joint border. Yugoslav troops entered Albanian land in November 1921.The League of Nations sent a commission, made up of representatives from Britain, France, Italy and Japan, to investigate the cause of the disagreement. On the basis of the commission's recommendations, the League of Nations found in favor of Albania. Yugoslavia had no option but to withdraw their troops.
CON 1921 - Treaty of Riga
In 1920, Poland invaded Russian territory. By 1921, the Russians had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Riga by which Poland gained a large sum of territory. The League took no action against the open act of aggression from Poland because of their dislike for the Russian government. They had no interest in defending them and they weren’t even a member of the League at the time.
PRO 1923 - Memel
The port of Memel and the surrounding area were placed under the control of the League of Nations by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. However, Lithuania claimed the region and invaded in 1923. The League decided that the area around the port should belong to Lithuania, but that Memel itself should remain an 'international zone'. There was some criticism of the League's decision because it seemed to condone the fact that Lithuania had been able to gain land by use of force.
CON 1923 - Ruhr Invasion
France and Belgium were breaking the rules of the League that they had signed in the Covenant. The League had been effectively prevented from taking action to deal with this decision as the votes needed to be unanimous. The League was basically powerless in ending it.
CON 1923 - Corfu Incident
Greece appealed to the League of Nations, which ordered the Italian troops to withdraw. Mussolini refused to accept that the League had the authority to deal with this issue. He threatened to withdraw Italy from the League (permanent member) and referred the matter instead to the Council of Ambassadors. The Council decided that Greece should pay considerable compensation to Italy. Not only had Italy been in the position to prevent the League from taking any action, but the League’s decision could be effectively overruled by another body.
PRO 1924 - Mosul
The city and region of Mosul had been part of the Turkish Empire until 1918. As a result of the Paris peace settlement, Mosul - an area in which oil had recently been discovered - became part of the British mandate of Iraq. Turkey demanded that it should be allowed to regain control of the region. In 1924, the League of Nations found in favor of Iraq and, after reaching an agreement with Britain, the Turks accepted the decision.
PRO 1925 - Greece-Bulgaria Border Dispute
Greece invaded Bulgaria in 1925. Bulgaria ordered its troops to offer only token resistance in an effort to avoid open conflict. Token resistance meant doing enough to protect the people but not endangering anyone. This was because the League was already alerted to the situation and would properly handle the invasion. The League condemned the invasion and called for Greece to withdraw and pay compensation to Bulgaria. Greece complied with the League's decision.
CON September 1931 - Crisis in Manchuria
Japanese forces had invaded Manchuria, China, where they had extensive trading rights (per the Russo-Japanese War). China had appealed to the League who ordered Japan to withdraw. Japan refused to comply with this and the League appointed a commission to investigate the rival claims, led by Britain, Germany, Italy, France, and the US. While doing so, Japan continued taking over Manchuria and claimed full control of it in 1932, renaming it to Manchukuo. Refusing to accept the 6-week decision of the League that ordered China to receive sovereignty with League oversight, Japan continued its military occupation. At the height of the worldwide depression, Britain and France were in no position to go to war over this issue. Without the support of the two most powerful members, nothing was done in response to the aggressive actions.
CON 1935 - Crisis in Abyssinia
Mussolini invaded Abyssinia, a far-away African country. Abyssinia issued an appeal to the League for assistance, but British and French national interests got in the way of action. They both viewed Italy as a vital ally against the reemerging Germany (Stresa Front). Mussolini was also prepared to go to war with any country that imposed sanctions on them, which is something Britain and France were not prepared for, especially against an ally who was important to the future stability of Europe. The two were also uninterested in defending this country’s independence. Mussolini pointed out that there was little difference in Britain and France’s earlier imperialistic involvement in Africa and what he was doing in Abyssinia. Outwardly, Britain and France seemed to be supporting, even encouraging, the League's decision to impose economic sanctions against Italy. However, these sanctions were limited and did not apply to vital resources such as oil, coal and steel. In truth, the sanctions had little effect on Italy's ability to maintain its fight for Abyssinia. Britain, France, and Italy even engaged in secret meetings to settle this dispute without war and came out with the Hoare-Laval Pact. This recommended the partition of Abyssinia in such a way that Italy would have been granted effective control of the country. Member states expressed their anger and disappointment at this pact and figured something needed to be done about Italy’s aggression. Negative public opinion had pushed for France to deny this pact. This was the event that “killed the League” due to the explicit betrayal of its original values.
After this, Mussolini withdrew Italy’s membership in the League and moved towards a closer alliance with Hitler’s Germany.
The League of Nation's effectiveness was heavily dependent on the attitudes of its most powerful members. Having been created by an unpopular settlement, the defeated nations saw the League as an organization purely created to benefit the victorious nations (since they weren’t allowed to join). US refusal to join the League also acted as a weakness because it acted as a significant blow to its prospects of success, reducing both its credibility and its financial security. The need for unanimity also slowed down the League’s decision-making process but also provided them with a veto. Many decisions also required ratification by the Assembly, which only met once a year, so the League overall seemed slow and indecisive. Collective security was also ironic as the League is anti-war, but not slow to jump and take military action if a country reacts negatively to a decision in a way that does not align with Britain and France’s national interests.
1945 - The League was replaced with the United Nations
Made at the end of WW2. Retained many of the League’s agencies. The International Labour Organization (ILO) continues to deal with maximum work hours, establish minimum wage levels, provide sickness and unemployment benefits, and introduce old-age pensions, the United Nation's High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) continues to address the problem of refugees and prevent the spread of diseases, and the World Health Organization (WHO) carries on the vital work of seeking solutions to international health issues.
1929 - The Great Depression
The collapse of the US economy as a result of American industries becoming heavily dependent on the export market while their output vastly exceeded what could be sold in the US itself. At the time, the US practiced protectionism which effectively prevented other countries from making profits by selling their goods within the USA. Without these profits, the countries were unable to afford American products. To retaliate, countries imposed high taxes on American imports and foreign demand for American goods fell. Investors rushed to sell their shares (money investments) which created a panic on Wall Street. By October 29, 1929, shares in hundreds of businesses became worthless and Wall Street Crashed. Banks were forced to closed as people rushed to withdraw money. Manufacturers began to produce less and workers lost their jobs at a time of no unemployment benefit. Money cut in households led to less overall demand which led to further unemployment. This economic depression lasted until the start of WW2.
European economic prosperity was dependent on American loans so if the US fell, they fell as well. The German economy collapsed and they were unable to make reparation payments. Britain, France, and Italy depended on these payments to get by and pay their own debts to the US, so they became economically unstable.
International trade declined and deflation spiraled in Europe and Japan. As poverty and hardship increased, the poor became disenchanted with elected governments, which they believed to be incapable of solving their problems or were even responsible for them. Instead, they adopted extremist political ideas, such as those of the communists and the fascists. Germany, Japan, and Spain saw a collapse of their democratic forms of government.
Feb 1932 - World Disarmament Conference
The conference failed to achieve any significant decisions regarding disarmament. This is because the timing for the conference was terrible. It was occurring at the same time as the Wall Street Crash of 1929 which was having adverse social and economic effects around the world. Maintaining armaments was ideal to combat the revolutions that might break out in response. There were also concerns about the implications of Japan’s takeover of Manchuria. If the League of Nations was powerless to prevent such aggression, countries felt that they needed to maintain their own armaments to protect themselves. In addition to defying the League of Nations, by increasing the size and strength of its navy Japan was also breaking the commitments it had made at the Washington Conference. This posed a serious threat to US interests in East Asia, so the USA was determined to maintain its armaments in order to protect those interests. Adolf Hitler gained power in Germany at the beginning of 1933, causing alarm across the rest of Europe. Hitler had always made it clear that his intention was to destroy the Treaty of Versailles and restore Germany's power and prestige. This posed a threat to other European countries, which wanted to maintain their armaments as security against possible German aggression.
An additional issue raised by Hitler was that since none of the other major European nations had reduced their military capabilities in line with the commitments they had made at the Paris Peace Conference, he argued that Germany was in no position to defend itself against foreign invasion. Hitler therefore insisted that, if other countries were not prepared to disarm, Germany should be permitted to increase its own armaments in the interests of self-defense.
1933 - Hitler withdrew Germany from both the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations in October 1933 after French refusal to negotiate with Germany’s request to increase their armaments.
Hitler's main foreign policy aims:
Ending Germany's commitment to the Treaty of Versailles
Recovering all lost territory, including the Polish Corridor developing the German army, navy and air force
Uniting all German-speaking people under the government of Germany, beginning by forming a union with Austria (Anschluss)
Supporting the concept of Lebensraum, providing more 'living space' for the German people by the acquisition of more territory - initially popularized within Germany at the beginning of the 20th century
In the period from 1934 to 1938, Hitler achieved almost unqualified success in pursuit of these aims. Moreover, he did so without dragging Germany into another war. His methods were devious, dependent on a mixture of threats and conciliatory statements. He gained supporters through his simple, frenzied, and hypnotic speeches. Once elected Chancellor, he removed all political opposition. Germany became a one-party, totalitarian state founded on extreme nationalism and the use of violence to maintain order and obedience.
Even though he looked to ally with Hitler after withdrawing from the League, Mussolini had reason to fear Hitler's intentions, particularly his desire to form a union between Germany and Austria. One of Mussolini's major concerns was the post-First World War weakness of Austria. As a neighbouring nation, Austria's lack of political, economic and military strength meant that it would provide Italy with little protection should Germany regain its power and show
signs of aggression (Hitler would reach for them first and not Italy).