WHO IS AN AMERICAN?

Introduction to the Debate on Imperialism

  • The Spanish-American War marked the United States' emergence as an imperial power.
  • This development triggered a significant discourse on the interplay of political democracy, race, and citizenship.
  • Anti-imperialists like Reverend Charles G. Ames expressed concerns about the impact of imperialism on domestic democracy.

Reverend Charles G. Ames' Address

  • Ames addressed an Anti-Imperialism Meeting in Boston in 1898.
Main Arguments Against Imperialism

  • Threat to Democracy:

    • Ames argued that the acquisition of overseas territories would undermine democracy in the United States.
    • He specifically questioned whether the inhabitants of the Philippines and other conquered areas deserved citizenship in America.
    • Quote: "Is there a man in America who wishes those seven millions of Malays, Negritos and Chinamen for fellow citizens and joint rulers of this Republic?"
    • He deemed military occupation ('the Spanish method') as contrary to America’s democratic principles.

  • Expansion of the Imperial Program:

    • Ames warned that U.S. imperial expansion was not limited to the Philippines but would extend further into Asia, Africa, and Polynesia.
    • Commentary on the significance of European powers dividing regions among themselves, suggesting the U.S. sought to partake in "the booty" of imperial conquest.

  • Contradiction to Free Government Principles:

    • Critique on how ruling over subject peoples abroad would lead to violations of free government principles.
    • Ames foresaw potential ramifications for governance methods applied domestically, cautioning against permanent military governance.
    • He stated, "…we give up the republic, for we abandon its fundamental principle…"

  • Financial Implications of Militarization:

    • Discussed the need for extensive military and naval expenditures to support constant readiness for conflict and occupation around the globe.

  • Change in National Character:

    • Ames argued that the policy of imperialism could engender a culture of arrogance and hostility in America, transforming it into another oppressor on the global stage.
    • He emphasized that America's imperial ambitions represented a declaration of war for the new century.

Questions for Reflection

  1. Why does Ames see imperialism as undermining democracy?
  2. How do his views of race affect his opposition to imperialism?

AMERICAN EMPIRE MAP AND CITIZENSHIP CONTEXT

Overview of American Expansion Post-War

  • The outcome of the Spanish-American War resulted in the U.S. governing various overseas territories.
  • Areas Acquired:
    • Philippines (ceded by Spain in 1898)
    • Puerto Rico (ceded by Spain in 1898)
    • Guam (ceded by Spain in 1898)
    • Hawaii (annexed in 1898)
    • American Samoa (annexed in 1899)
    • Wake Island (annexed in 1898)
    • Others including Midway Islands and the Aleutian Islands (purchased from Russia in 1867)

Concept of Citizenship and American Ideology

  • Ideals of Political Democracy:

    • The concept of self-government is a core principle of the Declaration of Independence.
    • The traditional expectation was that new territories would become equal states resulting in citizenship for their inhabitants.

  • Shift in Racial Ideology:

    • Nationalism, democracy, and American freedom were increasingly intertwined with Anglo-Saxon superiority notions following the war.
    • Example: The Foraker Act of 1900 defined Puerto Rico as an "insular territory," limiting the rights and identity of its inhabitants solely to Puerto Rican citizens—effectively barring them from U.S. citizenship.
Insular Cases
  • Supreme Court Rulings:
    • In a series of decisions between 1901 and 1904, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution did not fully apply to newly acquired territories.
    • This led to a key limitation on the scope of American freedoms promised after Independence.
    • Critical principles such as "no taxation without representation" and "government based on the consent of the governed" were disregarded for these territories.

Paths of the Acquired Territories

  • Evolution of U.S. Territories:
    • Hawaii: Assimilated into a traditional territory, where its population (excluding Asian laborers) ultimately became American citizens and achieved statehood in 1959.
    • Philippines: Gained independence in 1946 after numerous years under American rule.
    • Guam: Managed by the U.S. Navy until 1950; still an "unincorporated" territory today.
    • Puerto Rico: Often labeled as "the world's oldest colony", having been without full self-government since 1493. Residents elect their government but lack representation in Congress and in presidential elections.

Global Impact of American Ideologies

  • U.S. notions of liberty and governance resonated internationally, influencing global perceptions on race and citizenship.
  • Case Study: The U.S. policy on Chinese exclusion influenced similar legislative frameworks in Canada, while South Africa's racial policies mirrored American segregation methods, ultimately leading to apartheid.
Propaganda and American Ideals
  • An 1898 photograph symbolically depicted the Spanish-American War as a reconciliation point between conflicting American sects (Union and Confederate), framed as liberation for Cuba.

Anti-Imperialist Sentiment

  • Opposition Mechanisms:
    • The Anti-Imperialist League formed, attracting diverse figures, emphasizing that American focus should be on exhibiting self-governance successes rather than imperial conquests.
    • In the 1900 election, the Democratic Party platform, featuring William Jennings Bryan, opposed the Philippine War as contrary to American values concerning liberty and self-governance.
    • George S. Boutwell (Anti-Imperialist League President) emphasized that the central electoral theme was whether the U.S. should adopt a character of a republic or an empire.

Conclusion

  • As the twentieth century dawned, the United States was positioned as a burgeoning global power, marked by an industrial boom and complex racial dynamics.
  • However, many ideological challenges remained unresolved regarding the definitions of freedom, citizenship, and America's dual role as a republic versus an empire, which were inherited from the prior century.