Music Theory: Non-Chord Tones, Melodic Analysis, Form, and Accompaniment

Harmonic Progression and Harmonic Function

• Lead-sheet symbols, key signatures, triads, seventh chords, and Roman numerals form the foundation of harmonic analysis.

• Harmonic functions are categorized into four primary types:

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  • Tonic Function (ton.): Represents harmonic stability and the primary tonal center.

  • Dominant Function (dom.): Creates tension that strongly resolves to the tonic.

  • Pre-Dominant Function (pre-dom.): Bridges tonic stability and dominant tension, preparing the arrival of dominant harmony.

  • Tonic Prolongation Function (ton. prol.): Extends the domain of tonic harmony through passing chords, neighbor chords, or pedal points without establishing new structural goals.

• Standard Cadence Types and Chord Configurations:

  • Authentic Cadence: Moves from dominant harmony to tonic harmony ($V - I$ or $V^7 - I$ in major; $V - i$ or $V^7 - i$ in minor).

  • Half Cadence: Pauses on dominant harmony ($V$), approached from tonic or pre-dominant harmony.

  • Deceptive Cadence: Moves from dominant harmony ($V$ or $V^7$) to a non-tonic chord, most commonly submediant ($vi$ in major, $VI$ in minor).

  • Plagal Cadence: Moves from subdominant harmony to tonic harmony ($IV - I$ in major, $iv - i$ in minor).

• Rhythmic Notation Rules and Correct Metrical Grouping:

  • In $4/4$ meter, sixteen 16th notes must be grouped clearly into four discrete beat units of four 16th notes each, avoiding continuous unbeamed notation across the mid-measure bar line.

  • In $6/8$ meter, eighth notes and 16th notes must be grouped strictly into two dotted-quarter beat units ($3/8 + 3/8$) rather than three quarter-note units ($2/8 + 2/8 + 2/8$).

• Progression Analysis Examples:

  • In C major: $I - vii^{\circ}/3\text{rd} - I/3\text{rd} - ii/3\text{rd} - I/5\text{th} - V - I$ corresponds to lead-sheet chords $C - B^{\circ}/D - C/E - Dm/F - C/G - G - C$, demonstrating stepwise passing motion in the bass.

  • Progression 14 in D major: $I - iii - vi^7 - ii^7/3\text{rd} - V - I$ ($D - F\sharp m - Bm^7 - Em^7/G - A - D$ ).

  • Progression 14 in G minor: $i - VI - iv - ii^{\varnothing 7}/3\text{rd} - V^7 - i$ ($Gm - E\flat - Cm - A^{\varnothing 7}/C - D^7 - Gm$).

Non-Chord Tones

• Definition: Non-chord tones (also called embellishing tones or non-harmonic tones) are pitches that do not belong to the underlying structural chord. They are classified by how they are approached and left (by same tone, step, or leap).

• The Nine Types of Non-Chord Tones:

  • Passing Tone (pt): Approached by step, left by step in the same direction.

  • Neighbor Tone (nt): Approached by step, left by step in the opposite direction.

  • Appoggiatura (app): Approached by leap, left by step (typically in the opposite direction).

  • Escape Tone (esc): Approached by step, left by leap in the opposite direction.

  • Double Neighbor (dn): Embellishes a single chord tone by sounding both the upper neighbor and lower neighbor successively before returning to the original pitch.

  • Anticipation (ant): Approached by step, left by the same pitch (anticipates the pitch of the incoming chord).

  • Pedal Point (ped. pt.): Approached by the same note, left by the same note (held continuous pitch while surrounding harmonies change).

  • Suspension (sus): Approached by the same note (preparation), left by step down (resolution).

  • Retardation (ret): Approached by the same note (preparation), left by step up (resolution).

• Non-Chord Tone Qualifiers:

  • Accented: Occurs directly on a metrically strong beat or accented sub-beat.

  • Unaccented: Occurs on an offbeat or metrically weak division of the beat.

  • Chromatic: Employs an accidental outside the current prevailing key signature.

  • Metrical: Duration is equal to the duration of the fundamental beat unit.

  • Sub-metrical: Duration is shorter than the fundamental beat unit.

  • Super-metrical: Duration exceeds the duration of a single beat unit.

• Detailed Non-Chord Tone Analysis and Musical Examples:

  • Passing Tones:

  • Unaccented passing tones occur on offbeats; accented passing tones occur on downbeats or strong beats.

  • Two consecutive diatonic passing tones can connect the root and fifth of a triad in a descending scale segment.

  • Chromatic passing tones fill whole-step intervals with half-step motion.

  • Examples: Jason Desrouleaux et al., "Want to Want Me" (2015) [E$\flat$, Cm, D$\flat$, A$\flat$9($\flat$5), D$\flat$6]; Herman Hupfeld, "As Time Goes By" (1931); Thelonious Monk, "Blue Monk" (1954).

  • Neighbor Tones:

  • Moves away from a chord tone by step (upper or lower) and returns to the same chord tone.

  • Example: Ludwig van Beethoven, Minuet in G, WoO 10, No. 2.

  • Appoggiatura:

  • Approached by leap and left by step; usually accented, making it expressive.

  • Both the leap to and step away can occur in any directional combination, including ascending resolutions.

  • Examples: James Horner and Will Jennings, "My Heart Will Go On" (1997); Bruce Springsteen, "Born to Run" (1975) [E, A, Bsus4, B]; W.A. Mozart, Symphony No. 40, K. 550, II.

  • Escape Tone:

  • Approached by step and left by leap in the opposite direction.

  • Examples: Francis Scott Key and John Stafford Smith, "Star-Spangled Banner" (1814) [word "of" in "home of the brave"]; Joseph Haydn, Piano Sonata in C Major, Hob. XVI:35, III (1780); Paul McCartney and Linda McCartney, "Silly Love Songs" (1976) [C, Em7, Fmaj7].

  • Double Neighbor:

  • Combines upper and lower neighbor tones around a central pitch before returning to it.

  • Examples: Friedrich Kuhlau, Sonatina in C Major, Op. 55, No. 1, I (1823); W.A. Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 333, I (1784).

  • Anticipation:

  • Previews a note belonging to the subsequent chord before the harmony officially shifts, frequently situated at cadences.

  • Syncopation frequently generates anticipations across measure lines.

  • Examples: George Frideric Handel, Rinaldo, "Lascia ch'io pianga" (1711); Debbie Harry and Giorgio Moroder, "Call Me" (1980) [G, A, Dm, F].

  • Pedal Point:

  • Pitch sustained through changing harmonies; begins as a consonant chord tone, becomes a non-chord tone as harmonies shift, and ends as a chord tone upon harmony resolution.

  • Primarily located in the bass voice; bass pedal points obscure chord inversions, making inversion specification unnecessary.

  • High-voice pedal points and double pedal points (two pitches sustained simultaneously, usually a fifth apart) also occur.

  • Examples: J.S. Bach, Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude 1 in C Major, BWV 846 (1722); Clara Schumann, Op. 13, No. 2, "Sie liebten sich beide" (1844).

  • Suspension:

  • Accented non-chord tone consisting of three phases: Preparation (consonant pitch in previous chord), Suspension (dissonant held pitch on downbeat), and Resolution (stepwise downward movement to consonant pitch).

  • Standard numeric classifications measure interval distance from bass to suspended tone and resolution tone:

    • $9-8$ Suspension

    • $7-6$ Suspension

    • $4-3$ Suspension

    • $2-3$ Suspension (referred to as the "bass suspension" because the suspended note resides in the bass voice, measured against an upper voice)

    • $6-5$ Suspension

  • Reduction Rule: Reduce compound intervals larger than an octave to standard single-digit designations ($11-10$ becomes $4-3$; $10-9$ in bass becomes $2-3$).

  • Non-standard numerical designations ($5-4$, $3-2$) occur when suspensions appear over inverted chords.

  • Suspension decorations occur when ornamental embellishments sound after the suspension before settling on the resolution pitch.

  • Examples: Samuel Barber, Adagio for Strings (1936); George Frideric Handel, Suite No. 2 in D Major, HWV 349: II. Alla Hornpipe (1717); J.S. Bach, Chorale 238, "Liebster Jesu, wir sind hier," BWV 373; J.S. Bach, French Suite No. 1 in D Minor, BWV 812, Sarabande (1722).

  • Retardation:

  • Accented non-chord tone on a downbeat approached by the same pitch and resolving UP by step.

  • Example: W.A. Mozart, Piano Sonata in C Major, K. 545, II (1788).

  • Incomplete Neighbor:

  • A non-chord tone that departs from strict preparation or resolution requirements, lacking either the stepwise approach or stepwise exit.

  • Example: Giacomo Puccini, Gianni Schicchi, "O mio babbino caro" (1918).

• Guidelines for Adding Non-Chord Tones to a Basic Progression:

  1. Repeated Notes: Insert an upper or lower neighbor tone.

  2. Step Down Motion:

  • Delay resolution pitch to create a suspension.

  • Step in opposite direction, then leap to create an escape tone.

  • Insert a double neighbor figure.

  • Insert a chromatic passing tone.

  • Insert an anticipation.

  1. Step Up Motion:

  • Delay resolution pitch to create a retardation.

  • Insert a double neighbor figure.

  • Insert a chromatic passing tone.

  • Insert an anticipation.

  • Leap one step beyond the resolution pitch on the beat, displacing resolution off the beat to create an appoggiatura.

  1. Leap of a 3rd:

  • Fill in the interval of a 3rd with a passing tone.

  • Leap one step beyond the resolution pitch on the beat to create an appoggiatura.

  1. Leaps of a 4th or Larger: Avoid embellishing.

  • Harmonic Rule for Multiple Voices: When adding non-chord tones to multiple voices simultaneously on the same beat, ensure they form consonant intervals ($3\text{rds}$, $5\text{ths}$, $6\text{ths}$, or $8\text{ves}$) with each other. If consonant intervals cannot be formed, stagger the voice movements rhythmically.

Melodic Analysis

• Melodic structures are analyzed across hierarchical levels: motives (which break down into fragments), subphrases, and phrases.

• Motive:

  • The smallest identifiable melodic idea in a musical composition.

  • Micro-units within a motive are referred to as fragments or germs.

  • Example: Ludwig van Beethoven, Symphony No. 1, Op. 21, I (1800), primary theme contains four distinct motives that undergo rigorous thematic development.

• The Seven Basic Methods of Melodic Alteration:

  1. Inversion: Flipping the melodic contour upside down across a horizontal plane. Inversion can be real (preserving exact interval qualities) or tonal (adjusting intervals to conform to the diatonic scale/key). Example: J.S. Bach, Invention No. 1 in C Major, BWV 772 (1723).

  2. Intervallic Change: Modifying the interval sizes or directions within a motive while retaining its general rhythm and contour. Examples: Ray Noble, "The Very Thought of You" (1934); Eric Stewart and Graham Gouldman, "I'm Not In Love" (1975).

  3. Augmentation and Diminution:

  • Augmentation: Doubling the duration of every rhythmic value within the motive. Example: J.S. Bach, Invention No. 1 in C Major.

  • Diminution: Halving the duration of every rhythmic value (or substituting shorter rhythmic values). Example: Gustav Holst, "Uranus" from The Planets, Op. 32 (1916).

  1. Rhythmic Change: Altering select rhythmic durations within a motive while keeping pitch sequence intact. Examples: Hurby Azor and Ray Davies, "Push It" (1987); Ludwig van Beethoven, Pathétique Sonata, Op. 13, I.

  2. Ornamentation: Embellishing essential motivic structural pitches with passing tones, neighbor tones, or other non-chord tones. Example: Stevie Wonder, "Sir Duke" (1976).

  3. Extension: Appending additional melodic material to the end of a motive during its restatement. Example: Stevie Wonder, "Sir Duke" (1976).

  4. Retrograde: Stating the notes of a motive in exact reverse order (from last pitch to first pitch). Example: Cathy Dennis et al., "Toxic" (2003).

  • Note: Transposition (sequencing) is so fundamental to musical development that it is not classified as a motivic alteration.

• Fragment:

  • Sub-divisions of compound motives developed independently through techniques like augmentation, inversion, or extension.

  • Example: J.S. Bach, Invention No. 1 in C Major, opening 7-note compound motive splits into 4-note fragment "a" and 4-note fragment "b".

• Phrase:

  • The smallest complete formal section unit that expresses a finished musical thought.

  • In classical music, phrases always terminate with a cadence.

  • In popular music, phrases are defined by completing four measures or a complete line of lyric.

  • Standard phrase durations are four or eight measures, though asymmetrical phrase lengths of five, six, or seven measures occur.

  • Examples:

  • Four-measure phrases: Smokey Robinson and Ronald White, "My Girl" (1964); Nickolas Ashford and Valerie Simpson, "I'm Every Woman" (1978).

  • Five-measure phrase: Shaffer Smith et al., "Irreplaceable" (2006).

  • Six-measure phrase: W.A. Mozart, Symphony No. 40, K. 550, III (1788).

  • Eight-measure phrase: W.A. Mozart, Piano Sonata in C Major, K. 545, II.

• Subphrase:

  • A structural unit smaller than a phrase but larger than a motive, typically two measures in length (also called phrase segments or phrase members).

  • Subphrases are designated by lowercase letters ($a$, $b$, etc.). Alterations are designated with prime marks ($a'$, $a''$). Pure transpositions maintain the base letter ($a$).

  • Distinguishing subphrase from motive: Motives are short (2 to 7 notes); subphrases contain 6 or more notes and span two full measures.

  • Examples: Christine McVie, "Don't Stop" (1977); Stefan Gordy and Skyler Gordy, "Party Rock Anthem" (2011); Steve Perry et al., "Don't Stop Believin'" (1981); Ray Noble, "The Very Thought of You" (1934).

Form in Popular Music

• Form in popular music is organized into predictable metric blocks of 4, 8, 12, or 16 measures.

• Verse-Chorus Form:

  • The most pervasive form in contemporary popular music.

  • Chorus: Contains the primary thematic "hook" and lyrical refrain.

  • Verse: Presents narrative progression with less prominent melodic material.

  • Auxiliary sections: Pre-chorus, post-chorus, bridge, interlude, solo, introduction, coda.

  • Simple Verse-Chorus Form: Verse and chorus share the exact same underlying harmonic progression (e.g., Meghan Trainor, "All About That Bass").

  • Contrasting Verse-Chorus Form: Verse and chorus feature distinct harmonic progressions (e.g., Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie, "We Are The World" [1985]; Kurt Cobain et al., "Smells Like Teen Spirit" [1991]).

• AABA Form:

  • Dominant in 1930s–1950s Broadway and Great American Songbook repertory; common in early Rock 'n' Roll and 1960s pop.

  • Standardized as a 32-bar form consisting of four 8-measure sections.

  • A Sections: Present the primary defining melody.

  • B Section: Provides contrast; termed the "bridge" or "middle eight".

  • Terminology variant: The 32-bar AABA block is sometimes termed a "refrain" or "chorus", preceded by an introductory "verse" (or "prelude").

  • Examples: George Gershwin, "I Got Rhythm" (1930); "Over the Rainbow"; George Gershwin, "Someone to Watch Over Me"; Cole Porter, "Anything Goes"; The Beatles, "Yesterday", "Norwegian Wood", "Hey Jude"; The Cure, "Friday, I'm in Love" (1992); Norah Jones, "Don't Know Why" (1999).

• ABAC Form:

  • Standard 32-bar popular form divided into four 8-measure phrases where section C introduces new material replacing section B restatement.

  • Variant form: $ABAB'$, where $B'$ begins identically to $B$ but resolves differently.

  • Examples: Hoagy Carmichael, "Star Dust" (1927); "White Christmas"; "Someday My Prince Will Come"; "When I Fall In Love".

• The 12-Bar Blues:

  • Foundational form originating in early 20th-century blues, central to Swing and 1950s Rock 'n' Roll.

  • Standard 12-bar harmonic framework:

  • Bars 1–4: $I - I - I - I$

  • Bars 5–8: $IV - IV - I - I$

  • Bars 9–12: $V - IV - I - I$

  • Example: Chuck Berry, "Johnny B. Goode" (1958).

• Harmonically Closed vs. Open Sections:

  • Harmonically Closed Section: Concludes on the tonic chord ($I$ or $i$), creating tonal stability.

  • Harmonically Open Section: Concludes on a non-tonic chord (typically dominant $V$, or subdominant $IV$), generating expectation for continuation.

  • Structural application: In AABA form, A sections are harmonically closed ($I$) while the B section/bridge is harmonically open ($V$). In Verse-Chorus form, verses, pre-choruses, and bridges are harmonically open to drive forward into the chorus.

Phrases in Combination

• The Perfect Authentic Cadence (PAC) Requirements:

  1. Progression must move from dominant ($V$ or $V^7$) to tonic ($I$ or $i$).

  2. Both $V$ and $I$ chords must be in root position.

  3. The tonic scale degree ($\hat{1}$) must be in the highest voice (soprano) of the resolving tonic chord.

  • Imperfect Authentic Cadence (IAC): Occurs if any of these three criteria are violated (e.g., inverted chords, $\hat{3}$ or $\hat{5}$ in soprano, or $vii^{\circ}$ substituting for $V$).

• The Sentence:

  • A structural phrase unit characterized by a specific melodic design: a short melodic statement ($a$ or motive 1) is stated, immediately repeated or sequenced, and followed by expanded cadential material leading to a closure.

  • Standard structural metric proportion: $1 + 1 + 2$ measures or $2 + 2 + 4$ measures.

  • Examples: W.A. Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 331, I; Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata Op. 2, No. 1, I; W.A. Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 333, I (1783).

• The Period:

  • Structural combination of at least two phrases where the final phrase ends with a more conclusive cadence than the initial phrase.

  • Cadence Conclusiveness Hierarchy:

  • Inconclusive Cadences: Deceptive Cadence ($DC$: $V - vi$), Half Cadence ($HC$: ends on $V$).

  • Conclusive Cadences: Authentic Cadence ($AC$: $V - I$), Plagal Cadence ($PC$: $IV - I$).

  • Perfect Authentic Cadence ($PAC$) is strictly more conclusive than Imperfect Authentic Cadence ($IAC$).

  • Antecedent and Consequent:

  • Antecedent: The initiating phrase ending on a less conclusive cadence ("question").

  • Consequent: The answering phrase ending on a more conclusive cadence ("answer").

  • Parallel vs. Contrasting Periods:

  • Parallel Period: Both antecedent and consequent phrases begin with identical or nearly identical melodic material ($a \: a'$). Examples: W.A. Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 331, I; Joseph Haydn, Piano Sonata Hob. XVI:9, III; Ludwig van Beethoven, Für Elise, WoO 59.

  • Contrasting Period: Antecedent and consequent phrases begin with distinctly different melodic material ($a \: b$). Example: Ludwig van Beethoven, Pathétique Sonata, Op. 13, II.

  • Repeated Phrase: A structural unit where an identical phrase is stated twice with the exact same cadential ending ($a \: a$), failing to form a period due to lack of cadential differentiation.

  • Asymmetrical Period: A period composed of an odd number of phrases (three or five phrases), featuring an unequal number of antecedents and consequents ($a \: a \: b$ or $a \: b \: b$). Example: Frédéric Chopin, Prelude Op. 28, No. 20 in C minor.

  • Double Period: A 4-phrase structure divided into an antecedent group (first two phrases) and a consequent group (final two phrases). The cadence at the end of the consequent group must be more conclusive than the cadence at the end of the antecedent group.

  • Parallel Double Period: Follows the melodic design $a \: b \: a \: b'$.

  • Standard cadential schemes for double periods:

    1. $HC - HC - HC - PAC$

    2. $IAC - IAC - IAC - PAC$

    3. $IAC - HC - IAC - PAC$

  • Example: Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata Op. 10, No. 1, II.

  • Repeated Period: A 4-phrase design where an entire two-phrase period is repeated verbatim or with minor embellishment ($a \: b \: a \: b$ or $a \: a' \: a \: a'$ with cadence formula $HC - PAC - HC - PAC$). Example: Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata Op. 53 ("Waldstein"), I.

• Phrase Groups and Phrase Chains:

  • Non-period phrase combinations that fail to form a period because their final cadence is an inconclusive Half Cadence ($HC$).

  • Phrase Group: Consists of two or more phrases with similar melodic beginnings ($a \: a'$) ending on a Half Cadence ($HC$). Example: François Couperin, "Le Petit-Rien".

  • Phrase Chain: Consists of two or more phrases with contrasting melodies ($a \: b$) ending on a Half Cadence ($HC$). Example: Ludwig van Beethoven, Sonatina in F, Anh. 5 No. 2, II.

• The Elision:

  • A structural device joining two phrases together in an overlapping manner, where the structural final measure of one phrase simultaneously serves as the structural first measure of the next phrase.

  • Example: W.A. Mozart, Eine kleine Nachtmusik, K. 525, I.

• Summary Table of Phrases in Combination:

  • 2 Phrases:

  • Parallel Period ($a \: a'$): Less conclusive cadence followed by more conclusive cadence.

  • Contrasting Period ($a \: b$): Less conclusive cadence followed by more conclusive cadence.

  • Phrase Group ($a \: a'$): Concludes on $HC$.

  • Phrase Chain ($a \: b$): Concludes on $HC$.

  • Repeated Phrase ($a \: a$): Identical cadence twice.

  • 3 Phrases:

  • Asymmetrical Period ($a \: a \: b$ or $a \: b \: b$): Ends with most conclusive cadence.

  • Phrase Group ($a \: a \: b$ or $a \: b \: b$): Ends on $HC$.

  • Phrase Chain ($a \: b \: c$): Ends on $HC$.

  • 4 Phrases:

  • Double Period ($a \: b \: a \: b'$, $a \: a' \: a \: a''$, or $a \: a' \: a \: b$): Cadence schemes $HC-HC-HC-AC$, $IAC-IAC-IAC-PAC$, or $IAC-HC-IAC-PAC$.

  • Repeated Period ($a \: b \: a \: b$ or $a \: a' \: a \: a'$): Less conclusive then more conclusive formula repeated ($HC-PAC-HC-PAC$).

Accompanimental Textures

• Texture Definitions:

  • Vertical Dimension: Refers to the harmonic density, voice count, and simultaneity of pitches.

  • Horizontal Dimension: Refers to rhythmic density and activity over time.

  • Examples: Samuel Barber, Adagio for Strings (1936) [dense 5-voice vertical chords with slow horizontal rhythm]; W.A. Mozart, String Quartet K. 428, IV (1783) [4-voice texture with intense 16th-note horizontal activity].

• Chorale Texture (Homorhythmic):

  • Texture in which all voices move in identical (or near-identical) rhythmic values, producing a chord for every melody note.

  • Examples: Francis Scott Key and John Stafford Smith, "The Star-Spangled Banner" (1814); Franz Schubert, Winterreise, D. 911, "Die Nebensonnen" (1828); Traditional, "Amazing Grace"; Jeff Bhasker et al., "Some Nights" (2011).

• Arpeggiated Accompaniments:

  • Standard Arpeggios: Expressing chords sequentially pitch-by-pitch against an octave bass line. A tenth interval ($8\text{ve} + 3\text{rd}$) is commonly maintained between bass and soprano voices for acoustic clarity. Examples: Ludwig van Beethoven, Moonlight Sonata, Op. 27, No. 2, I (1802); Alicia Keys, "If I Ain't Got You" (2004).

  • Ascending and Descending Arpeggios: James Pankow, "Colour My World" (1970); Fred Ball et al., "Love on the Brain" (2016).

  • Pop Arpeggiated Figures: Adele Adkins and Dan Wilson, "Someone Like You" (2011); Ryan Tedder, "Secrets" (2009); Kevin Briggs et al., "No Scrubs" (1999).

• Alberti Bass:

  • Arpeggiated accompaniment pattern moving in a specific broken order: Low pitch - High pitch - Middle pitch - High pitch.

  • Examples: W.A. Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 545, I (1788); Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata Op. 10, No. 1, II; Brian Carman and Bob Spickard, "Pipeline" (1962).

• Block Chord Accompaniments:

  1. The "1 (2) &" Rhythm: Two block chords per measure, sounding on beat 1 and the upbeat of beat 2. Examples: Marvin Gaye and Ed Townsend, "Let's Get It On" (1973); Ed Sheeran, "Thinking Out Loud" (2014); Keith Forsey and Steve Schiff, "Don't You (Forget About Me)" (1985); Holly Knight et al., "Never" (1985); Kesha Sebert et al., "Tik Tok" (2009); Bruno Mars et al., "That's What I Like" (2017) [shares progression with Earth, Wind & Fire, "September"]; Charlie Puth et al., "See You Again" (2015); James Arthur et al., "Say You Won't Let Go" (2016); Justin Bieber et al., "Love Yourself" (2015) [diminution version].

  2. The "Barbara Ann" Rhythm: Defined by the syncopated pattern 1 2 3 (4) & (1) & (2) & 3. Examples: Fred Fassert, "Barbara Ann" (1961); Brian Holland et al., "You Can't Hurry Love" (1966); Sara Allen et al., "Maneater" (1982); Kimberley Rew, "Walking On Sunshine" (1985); Nic Cester and Cameron Muncey, "Are You Gonna Be My Girl" (2003); Ritchie Blackmore et al., "Smoke on the Water" (1973).

  3. Repeated 8th-Note Chords: Continuous pulsing 8th-note chordal repetition. Examples: W.A. Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 310, I (1778); Franz Schubert, Winterreise, "Gute Nacht" (1828); Robert Schumann, Dichterliebe, "Ich grolle nicht" (1844); Charles Strouse and Martin Charnin, Annie, "It's the Hard Knock Life" (1977); Geoff Gill and Cliff Wade, "Heartbreaker" (1979); Nate Ruess et al., "We Are Young" (2011).

  4. Repeated Quarter-Note Chords: Steady 4-beat chordal driving pattern. Examples: George Frideric Handel, Xerxes, "Ombra mai fu" (1738); Joe Raposo et al., "Sesame Street Theme" (1969); Billy Joel, "She's Got a Way" (1971); Lou Gramm and Mick Jones, "Cold As Ice" (1977); Gordon Sumner, "Roxanne" (1978); Michael Bublé et al., "Haven't Met You Yet" (2009); Sara Bareilles, "Love Song" (2007).

• Afterbeats and Offbeats:

  • Afterbeats: Chordal attacks sounding immediately following a downbeat (usually 8th or quarter notes). Examples: Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata Op. 2, No. 1, IV (1796); W.A. Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 279, III (1775).

  • Offbeats: Chordal accents occurring regularly on unaccented upbeats, deliberately skipping downbeats.

  • Polka Style: Jaromír Vejvoda, "Beer Barrel Polka" (1927).

  • Reggae Style: Offbeat rhythmic chop on guitar or organ. Examples: Bob Marley, "Could You Be Loved" (1980); Gordon Sumner, "Walking on the Moon" (1979); Neil Diamond, "Red Red Wine" (UB40 version, 1983); Gwen Stefani and David Stewart, "Underneath It All" (2001); Jason Mraz, "I'm Yours" (2007); Nasri Atwey et al., "Rude" (2013).

• The 3–2 Son Clave and Rhythmic Cross-Patterns:

  • Fundamental Afro-Cuban rhythmic pattern with 3 attacks in bar 1 and 2 attacks in bar 2. The first measure consists of a $3+3+2$ metric division.

  • Bo Diddley Beat: Direct application of the 3–2 son clave. Examples: Willie Dixon, "Pretty Thing"; Bert Berns et al., "I Want Candy"; Russ Ballard, "New York Groove"; George Michael, "Faith"; U2, "Desire".

  • The 3+3+2 Rhythm (Tresillo in 16th Notes): Reggie Calloway, "Casanova" (1987); Frankie Sullivan and Jim Peterik, "Eye of the Tiger" (1982); Robert Hazard, "Girls Just Want to Have Fun" (1983).

  • Double 3+3+2 Rhythm: (3+3+2) + (3+3+2): John Stephens and Toby Gad, "All of Me" (2013); Shawn Mendes et al., "Treat You Better" (2016); Ed Sheeran et al., "Shape of You" (2017); György Ligeti, Trio for Violin, Horn, and Piano, II (1982); Guy Berryman et al., "Clocks" (2003); Grohl et al., "Best of You" (2005); Nasri Atwey et al., "Rude" (2013).

  • Habanera and Reggaeton: Habanera bass line ($3+3+2$ metric feel). Examples: Georges Bizet, Carmen, Habanera (1870); Wycliffe Johnson and Cleveland Browne, "Dem Bow" (1990); Aubrey Graham et al., "One Dance" (2016); Luis Rodríguez et al., "Despacito" (2017); Bieber et al., "Sorry"; Karen Marie Ørsted et al., "Final Song" (2016); Adam Levine et al., "Cold" (2017).

  • Expanded Rhythmic Variations:

  • 3+3+3+3+2+2: U2, "Beautiful Day" (2000); Aluna Frances and George Reid, "You Know You Like It" (2012); Janee Bennett et al., "Hold My Hand" (2015).

  • 8 Groups of 3 + 4 Groups of 2: Ray Parker, Jr., "Ghostbusters" (1984); Pink et al., "Raise Your Glass" (2010); Too Many Zooz, "Warriors" (2016).

  • 3+3+4+3+3: Stefan Gordy et al., "Party Rock Anthem" (2011); Onika Maraj et al., "Starships" (2012); Max Martin et al., "Problem" (2014).

• Distinctive Bass Lines and Guitar Riffs:

  • Bass Riffs: Joseph Eastburn Winner, "Little Brown Jug" (1869); Lennon-McCartney, "Day Tripper" (1965); Bernard Edwards and Nile Rodgers, "Good Times" (1979); John Deacon, "Another One Bites the Dust" (1980); Rick James, "Superfreak" (1981); David Bowie and Queen, "Under Pressure" (1981); Amethyst Kelly et al., "Fancy" (2014); Ben Haggerty et al., "Downtown" (2015).

  • Guitar/Bass Riffs: Ray Davies, "You Really Got Me" (1964); Jimmy Page and Robert Plant, "Immigrant Song" (1970); Steven Tyler and Joe Perry, "Walk This Way" (1975); Angus Young et al., "Back in Black" (1980).

Creating Contrast Between Sections

• The Eight Primary Elements of Music for Structural Contrast:

  1. Melody: Varying pitch contour, motivic content, or thematic material.

  2. Harmony: Shifting key centers, modal contrast (major versus minor), or harmonic complexity.

  3. Rhythm: Altering dominant rhythmic note values or metrical feels.

  4. Timbre: Altering instrumentation, vocal production, or performance techniques.

  5. Texture: Adjusting vertical density (number of active voices) or horizontal activity.

  6. Articulation: Shifting between staccato (detached) and legato (smooth) performance styles.

  7. Dynamics: Shifting between volume levels ($f$ vs $p$).

  8. Register: Shifting pitch placement across high, middle, or low frequency zones.

• Detailed Analysis 1: W.A. Mozart, Eine kleine Nachtmusik, K. 525, II (5-Part Rondo: ABACA):

  • A Section:

  • Harmony: C major key center.

  • Rhythm: 8th note is the primary active unit.

  • Texture: Top two violins paired against a simple bass part.

  • Articulation: Smooth legato style.

  • Dynamics: Soft ($p$).

  • Register: Balanced middle register.

  • B Section:

  • Rhythm: Continuous 8th notes with scalar 16th-note runs.

  • Texture: Homorhythmic 4-voice block motion at phrase openings.

  • Articulation: Four detached staccato notes initiate each subphrase.

  • C Section:

  • Harmony: Parallel key shift to C minor.

  • Rhythm: 16th-note continuous accompaniment; melody turn figures sound as 32nd notes.

  • Texture: Violin II and Viola paired internally while Violin I and Cello/Bass engage in contrapuntal imitation.

  • Articulation: Separated staccato accompaniment with staccato outer-voice motives.

• Detailed Analysis 2: MAGIC!, "Rude":

  • Verse 1: Vocal line accompanied solely by two guitars; complete omission of bass guitar and drum kit produces a sparse, light vertical texture.

  • Verse 2: Bass guitar and full drum groove enter, thickening texture and establishing a clear snare backbeat.

  • Pre-Chorus: Guitars and bass shift to sustained legato half/quarter notes; drummer switches to cross-stick 8th notes without snare backbeat, thinning the texture.

  • Chorus: Accompaniment mirrors Verse 2 groove, but vocal line rises to a higher register to present the melodic hook.

  • Post-Chorus: All instruments (guitars, bass, kick, snare, hi-hat) lock into a unified (3+3+2) + (3+3+2) rhythmic ostinato with open hi-hat.

Figured Bass

• Historical Context:

  • Developed during the Baroque era (c. 1600–1750 C.E.) as a shorthand method for writing chord progressions.

  • Consists of a given bass line written on a staff, accompanied by numbers and accidentals below the staff indicating intervals to be played above the bass pitch within the key signature.

  • Allowed keyboardists (harpsichord, organ) and lutenists freedom in choosing chord voicings during performance (termed "realization").

  • Example: George Frideric Handel, Recorder Sonata in A minor, HWV 362, I. Larghetto.

• Standard Figured Bass Inversion Symbols:

  • Triads:

  • Root Position: Unfigured (or designated as $5$ or $\frac{5}{3}$).

  • First Inversion: Designated as $6$ (abbreviation for $\frac{6}{3}$).

  • Second Inversion: Designated as $\frac{6}{4}$.

  • Seventh Chords:

  • Root Position: Designated as $7$ (abbreviation for $\frac{7}{5}{3}$).

  • First Inversion: Designated as $\frac{6}{5}$ (abbreviation for $\frac{6}{5}{3}$).

  • Second Inversion: Designated as $\frac{4}{3}$ (abbreviation for $\frac{6}{4}{3}$).

  • Third Inversion: Designated as $\frac{4}{2}$ or $2$ (abbreviation for $\frac{6}{4}{2}$).

• Accidentals in Figured Bass:

  • An accidental appearing alone below a bass note applies directly to the 3rd above the bass note.

  • A slash through a number or a plus sign ($+\text{number}$) indicates that specified interval above the bass pitch must be raised by one half step.