Example Essays
Item C
According to some sociologists, children in today's supposedly child-centred lead lives that are segregated and controlled, but childhood was not always like this. Aries describes a medieval world where there was little distinction between children and adults in either work or leisure. According to this view, industrial society brought major changes. Children's lives became increasingly confined and regulated by adults. Not all sociologists share this view. Some argue that the distinction between childhood and adulthood is again becoming blurred.
According to Item C and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of changes in the status of childhood [20 marks]
The phrase childhood refers to the state of being a child.
1. Point: One viewpoint believes 'that the distinction between childhood and adulthood is again becoming blurred' (Item C) and that viewpoint is the disappearance of childhood.
Explain: The disappearance of childhood looks at how childhood is getting lost in the world of global media.
Evidence: Postman (1994) believes that childhood is disappearing at a dazzling speed due to the information hierarchy.
Analysis: The information hierarchy refers to the differences in adults in children in terms of literacy, adults can read, and children cannot. This separates the two life stages and keeps 'adult' themes away from children to maintain their innocence. Due to the rise of TV and the internet, children are exposed to these adult themes and no longer maintain this innocence. As a result, the lines between adults and children become blurred because children can know as much as adults can and therefore destroys the information hierarchy. This implies the boundary is destroyed, adult power also fades along with the innocence that children possess.
Evaluate: However, Opie (1993) found that childhood is not disappearing, she argues that there is strong evidence of the continued existence of a separate children's culture over many years through children's unsupervised games, rhymes and songs.
2. Point: Another viewpoint acknowledges childhood 'was not always like this' (Item C) and that viewpoint is the march of progress view.
Explain: March of progress sociologists believe children's positions in western societies has gradually improved
Evidence: Mause (1974) - Says the further back we go in history, the lower the level of childcare and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorised and sexually abused.
Analysis: In essence, today's children are more valued, more cared for and more educated. Modern children have more rights and are protected from harm with laws, compared to previous generations and this is shows they are treated better than children of previous generations. As a result, children have become the focal point of the family. This leads to Parents investing more into their children and they have higher aspirations for their children in terms of their life and opportunities they have.
Evaluation: Some may argue that laws against children, for example laws against children carrying out paid work restrict their freedoms to earn their own money and they remain dependent on adults.
3. Point: The position of children differs over time as well as between societies.
Explain: It is believed that the notion of childhood in modern society is a relatively new invention.
Evidence: Aries argues that in the Middle Ages, the idea of childhood simply didn't exist.
Analysis: During the Middle Ages, children were effectively 'mini-adults', they entered society on the same terms as adults. For example, the law made no distinction between children and adults, as a result children often faced the same punishments as adults. Gradually, the notion of childhood began to emerge from the 13th century with developments such as: distinctions between children & adult clothing, schools to educate the young and books becoming available on childrearing. This led to the modern cult of childhood. This shows that childhood has changed over time, from not existing to becoming a prevalent feature of society.
Evaluate: Pollock challenges this by implying that it's more correct to say that society in the Middle Ages simply had a different notion of childhood from today.
4. Point: As we enter a postmodern society, the notion of childhood is changing not disappearing.
A postmodern society is characterised by science and rational thought. Society now experiences a 'pick and mix' culture when deciding what suits their lifestyle and choices.
Explain & Evidence: Jenks (2005) - Believes that childhood is changing as we transfer to a postmodern era, the pace of change speeds up and as a result relationships become more unstable.
Analysis: As a result, parents place more importance on the relationships with their children as opposed to their own personal relationships. Due to placing an increased level on care on their children's relationships, parents tend to protect their children more. This shows that children are vulnerable and are in need of protecting, which results in greater surveillance and regulation of their lives. This means that childhood is still a separate status and certain legal restrictions that are placed on children allow them to be separate from adults.
Evaluate: Jenks uses evidence from small, unrepresentative studies which means he over-generalises - even with the evident change in family diversity and childhood patterns, he makes sweeping statements that imply that all children are in the same position when they might not be.
In conclusion, childhood has taken a march of progress view as it is evident that children have a better quality of life compared to other generations, however they are still under control and regulation by their parents.
Item A
March of progress sociologists argue that the family is becoming more equal, increasingly today, both partners are likely to have jobs outside the home and they both carry out household chores and provide childcare. However, feminist sociologists reject this claim. They argue that they family is still patriarchal and that women today carry a dual burden.
Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the view that the division of labour in couples is now equal [20 marks]
The domestic division of labour refers to the roles men and women play in relation to paid work, domestic work and childcare.
Paragraph 1 - Yes
1. Point: The emergence of joint conjugal roles
Explain: The couple share tasks such as housework and childcare, and spend leisure time together
Evidence: Young & Willmott - Symmetrical family - the roles of husbands and wives are not identical but they are becoming more equal and similar
Analyse: This was caused by social changes such as both genders having 'jobs outside the home' (Item A), geographical mobility, higher living standards and new technology - encourage men to do more
Evaluate: Oakley - their claims are exaggerated; husbands 'helped' once a week with easy tasks
Link: Although there is a move to equality with women working outside the home, it's limited as women still do most of the housework
Paragraph 2 - No
2. Point: The family is patriarchal (Item A)
Explain: It is male dominated and women still do most of the housework because they maintain a subordinate and dependent role within the family
Evidence: Oakley - while there is some evidence of husbands helping there is no evidence of symmetry - only 15% for high levels in housework and 25% for childcare
Evaluate: Warde and Hetherington - evidence of slight change of attitude among younger men who were more likely to do their fair share
Link: Although some attitudes are changing, the majority is remaining the same
Paragraph 3 - March of Progress (Yes)
3. Point: Paid work for women results in a more equal division of labour
Explain: Men are becoming more involved with housework - roles are becoming similar
Evidence: Gershuny (1994) - Uses time studies and women in paid work did less housework compared to unemployed women
Evaluate: Boulton - little evidence for men doing more domestic work, it's exaggerated
Analysis: This shows that the 'new man' exists as men are putting in their fair share of domestic work and this is leading to the family becoming more equal.
Link: Although there are movements in equality, the movements are limited
Paragraph 4 - Feminist (No)
4. Point: Women going into work is actually creating a dual burden and in some cases a triple shift (Duncombe and Marsden)
Explain: A dual burden refers to the situation where a woman has to juggle paid work and domestic work.
Evidence: The British Social Attitudes Survey - found that on average men did 8 hours of domestic work a week, whereas women did 13 hours of domestic work per week which is almost double the amount of work.
Analysis: This highlights inequality within the family and this actually has a negative impact on women - both mentally and physically, as a result she has to take part in emotional work.
Evaluate: Gershuny - equal parents means more equal relationships because social values are adapting to women being in full-time employment and these values are passed on between generations
Link: Some may believe the patriarchal society makes the domestic division of labour unequal - but there are movements towards equality
In conclusion, the division of labour is now equal due to women going into paid work and this has influenced how domestic work is carried out between couples.
Item G
In modern society, people’s lives were made up of fixed age-stages, with the final stage defined by compulsory retirement and, for many, poverty. The old also faced prejudice and discrimination. By contrast, some sociologists argue that the position of the old in today’s postmodern society is changing for the better. In postmodern society, individuals can choose a lifestyle and identity that does not depend on their age. This has freed the old from their previous disadvantaged status in society. However, critics argue that many old people remain disadvantaged in today’s society.
Applying material from Item G and your knowledge, evaluate the view that the position of the old in today’s society is changing for the better [20 marks]
Old age refers to the ages nearing or surpassing the traditional life expectancy. Old age differs between societies.
1. Point: 'Modern society' (Item G) portrays the elderly in a particular way.
Explain: Modern society is characterised by scientific thought, individualism, industrialisation, technical development, and the rejection of some traditional values.
Evidence: Marxist Phillipson believes the old are no use towards capitalist values as they are no longer productive.
Analysis: As a consequence ageism emerges. Elderly people are 'structurally dependent' on society and the welfare state as they are excluded from work due to compulsory retirement. In modern society, identity and status is dependent on the role production and how the individual contributes to the production process. Due to the old being excluded from work, they are given a dependent status paired with a stigmatised identity. Specifically, role allocation is hugely reliant on age, fixed life stages are created along with age-related identities like a worker or a pensioner. Hence, the old are excluded from the labour force and made dependent and powerless.
Evaluation: However, Hirsch notes that old age is a social construct that can be changed.
Therefore, modern society doesn't position the old highly,
2. Point: 'Postmodern society' (Item G) portrays the elderly in a different light.
Explain: Postmodern society believes traditional values no longer provide reasonable explanations for things, society experiences a 'pick and mix' culture when deciding what suits their lifestyle and choices.
Evidence: Hunt argues that we can choose a lifestyle that identity regardless of age.
Analysis: In postmodern society, certain social trends such as late marriages and early retirement have blurred the boundaries between life stages. As a result, postmodern society regards consumption as the main basis of one's identity. Thus, individuals are defined by what they consume. This gives rise to the old becoming consumers of 'body maintenance' or 'rejuvenation' products, which allows them to create their identities. Moreover, postmodern society illustrates elderly lifestyles positively in the media, and anti-ageing products allow the old to rewrite their identities on the surface.
Evaluate: Although, critics argue that postmodernists undermine the importance of class and gender equalities within the older population and how this can impact their freedom of self-choosing identification through consumption.
We can infer that the position of the old has improved in the process of the move from a modern society to a postmodern society.
3. Point: The elderly population are a part of the dependency ratio
Explain: The dependency ratio refers to the two economically dependent groups (the non-working old and the non-working young)
Evidence: In 2015, there were 3.2 people of working age for every one pensioner, the ratio is predicted to fall to 2.8 to one by 2033
Analysis: The old rely on both the state and the working population for their pension and financial aids. This creates a problem; as the number of pensioners rises, the dependency ratio increases and the burden on the working population increases. Therefore, the old may be given the image of being a burden on society and this could result in ageist stereotypes and stigmatisation.
Evaluation: But, not all of the elderly population are economically dependent. Particularly, as the pension age is rising higher every few years.
This shows that the old may be vulnerable to being known as a burden on society, however this is changing over time with the rise in the pension age and their position is gradually improving.
4. Point: Whilst the position of the old may be improving overall but some factors restrict this general improvement.
Explain: Gender and class still play an important role within the ageing population, particularly in regards to their living standards.
Evidence: Pilcher argues that class and gender still remain important in old age as well as the individual's previous occupational position.
Analysis: As expected, those within the middle class would have higher occupational positions have access to higher salaries to ensure greater savings. However, those within the working class may have to rely on the state pension, they also have a shorter life expectancy, similarly they may also find it difficult to maintain a youthful self-identity. Additionally, women are paid less than men and take career breaks therefore they have lower pensions. Furthermore, women are more likely to be subject to gendered stereotypes such as being called an 'old hag'.
Evaluation: Hirsch suggests that certain policies like encouraging the old to 'trade down' housing can release some of their wealth to improve their standard of living.
The old's position may be hindered by gender and social class differences but there are still movements towards a better life for the old.
To conclude, the position of the old in today's society is improving especially during postmodernity where individuals are free to choose their lifestyles and shape their identity through consumption, but this is limited due to certain class and gender inequalities and many people still receive ageist stereotypes.
Item P
Feminist sociologists see society as patriarchal and they see the family as a key social institution that plays a central role in reproducing patriarchy. For example, it subordinates women to men’s power and maintains an unequal gender division of labour both in the home and in wider society. However, there are disagreements among feminists both about the underlying cause of women’s oppression and exploitation, and about how this can be ended.
Applying material from Item P and your knowledge, evaluate the contribution of feminist sociologists to our understanding of families and households [20 marks]
1. Marxist Feminism
Point: One feminist viewpoint is Marxist feminism.
Explain: This viewpoint believes that the main cause of women's oppression in families lies within capitalism. Marxist Feminists believe that women subconsciously perform several functions for capitalism.
Evidence: For example, Marxist Ansley believes that women soak up their husband's frustrations from their exploitative workplace. This may explain domestic violence against women.
Analysis: There are other functions that women perform within families that serves capitalism. Women reproduce the labour force by socialising the next generation of workers as well as maintaining and servicing the current one. This means that families are reproducing an obedient workforce that meets the demands of capitalist employers. As well as that, women are also a group used for cheap labour, they are taken on when extra work is needed and when this work is no longer needed, they return back to their primary occupation of providing unpaid domestic labour. Overall, Marxist feminists see the oppression of women within the family as being linked to the exploitation of the working-class. They believe that the institution of the family must be abolished and capitalist society must be replaced with a classless society.
Evaluation: But, it's argued that women's oppression within families still exists in communist societies and this ignores aspects of the family such as domestic abuse in non-capitalist societies.
2. Radical Feminism
Point: Another feminist viewpoint is Radical feminism.
Explain: Radical feminists 'see society as patriarchal and they see the family as a key social institution that plays a central role in reproducing patriarchy' (Item P).
Evidence: Radical feminist sociologists see the key division in society lies between men and women. Men are seen as the enemy because they are seen as the source of women's oppression and exploitation. They also believe that men benefit from women's unpaid domestic labour and from their sexual services and they hold power over women through the threat of domestic/sexual violence. Greer believes that the creation of matrilocal households would serve as an alternative to the heterosexual family.
Analysis: Radical feminists suggest that the patriarchal system needs to be overturned. Similarly, abolishing the family would also remove the root of women's oppression. This leads to the idea of separatism, where women must live independently without men. This is because heterosexual relationships are oppressive in their own right as they involve 'sleeping with the enemy'.
Evaluation: However, Liberal feminists like Somerville criticise Radical feminists for not acknowledging how far women have progressed overtime through better careers, control over their own fertility, the right to divorce etc.
3. Liberal Feminism
Point: Liberal feminism is another feminist viewpoint.
Explain: This view focuses on equality between men and women. Liberal feminists are concerned with campaigning against sex discrimination and for equal rights and opportunities for women. They hold a 'march of progress' view on gender equality.
Evidence: Liberal feminist sociologists argue that women's oppression within the family is being gradually overcome through changing people's attitudes and through changes in the law such as the Sex Discrimination Act (1975).
Analysis: This suggest there is a greater move towards equality. The extent of the move will depend on modifications in general gender attitudes and socialisation patterns. For example, it is believed that men are doing more domestic labour which leads to a more equal division of labour. Additionally, parents are also beginning to socialise their children more equally and have similar aspirations which aren't gender specific.
Evaluation: Even so, there are 'disagreements among feminists' (Item P). Other feminists criticise liberal feminists for failing to challenge the underlying causes of women's oppression and for believing that changes in the law and people's attitudes will be enough to bring equality.
4. Difference Feminism
Point: Difference feminism is another approach.
Explain: Most feminist approaches tend to assume that most women live in conventional nuclear families and that they share a similar experience of family life.
Evidence: Difference feminists argue that we cannot generalise about women's experiences. For example, lesbian and heterosexual women, white and black women, middle-class and working-class women all have very difference experiences of the family.
Analysis: For instance, One school of thought may see black families as racial oppressive and another school of thought may see black families as a source of support and resistance against racism. This implies that we all see families differently and the experiences women face within families also differ.
Evaluation: Although, other feminists challenge this, they believe that difference feminism ignores that many women go through similar experiences such as the risk of low pay, domestic violence or sexual assault etc.
In conclusion, the feminist approaches of the family do give us helpful insights into how women are treated within families. But many of these viewpoints ignore certain factors, like how far women have progressed and not all women have the same experience of the family.
Item H
There has been a significant increase in the number of divorces since 1970. One important factor behind the increase has been the changes in the law relation to divorce. However, legal changes alone may not be enough to explain the trend and sociologists have suggests a number of possible causes of a higher divorce rate. One of these is a decline in the influence of traditional norms about marriage that used to stigmatise divorce.
Applying material from Item H and your knowledge, evaluate sociological contributions to our understanding of the trends in divorce in the United Kingdom since 1970 [20 marks]
Divorce is the legal termination of a marriage
1. Point: One reason for the increase in divorce rates is due to the 'changes in the law relating to divorce' (Item H).
Explain: Traditionally, in 19th century Britain, it was difficult for women to obtain divorces. Changes in the law have made the divorce process easier, particularly there were three kinds of laws: equalising the grounds, widening divorce grounds and cheaper divorces. All of these changes led to an increase in the divorce rate.
Evidence: Notably, when the grounds of divorce were widened in 1971, it made divorce easier to obtain and doubled the divorce rate almost overnight.
Analysis: There were other solutions to end a marriage such as: desertion, legal separation and 'empty shell marriage' but, because divorce had become easier to obtain these alternative solutions were ignored.
Evaluate: Even though changes in the law had given people the freedom to divorce, it doesn't fully explain why people choose to take advantage of divorce.
This is a useful contribution to our understanding of divorce because we are able to understand how changes in the law influence decisions about divorce, but it doesn't explain why people choose divorce over other alternatives.
2. Point: Another reason for the increase in divorce rates is a shift in 'the influence of traditional norms about marriage that is used to stigmatise divorce' (Item H).
Explain: Stigma refers to a negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship.
Evidence: Mitchell and Goody believe that since the 1960s, there has been a rapid decline in the stigma attached to divorce.
Analysis: Originally, religious institutions had a major influence on norms, churches tended to condemn divorce and often refused to allow marriage services between divorcees. With stigma on the decline, divorce has gradually become more socially acceptable. This change may have been a consequence of secularisation; this refers to the decline of religion's influence on society. It's clear that religious institutions are losing their influence and society is becoming more secular. For example, church attendance rates had decreased. Secularisation has meant that traditional norms about divorce are destroyed because people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when deciding about personal matters like divorce.
Evaluation: However, many churches have begun to soften their views on divorce and divorcees, due to the fear of losing creditability with the public and their own members.
This is a useful contribution to our understanding of divorce because it demonstrates how religion and negative labels can influence decisions about divorce.
3. Point: As society changes, expectations and norms change. A potential reason for the increase in divorce rates is due to rising expectations within marriages.
Explain: This is linked with ideology changes.
Evidence: Functionalist Fletcher proposes that the higher expectations people place on marriage is a major cause of rising divorce rates.
Analysis: The ideology of romantic love has become more dominant. It suggests that marriage should be founded on love and if the love dies, spouses can divorce in hope of finding their new soulmate. This is a stark contrast to the past, traditional families were a unit of production and marriages were bound upon economic dependency and duties. Consequently, couples were more likely to tolerate a lack of intimacy due to their low expectations unlike today's society. Today marriage is no longer seen as a binding contract but as an act of personal fulfilment which can increase the chances of divorce if individuals are unsatisfied.
Evaluate: Fletcher takes a optimistic view by believing that the high rate of remarriages shows that marriage is still a viable institution. But feminists believe that the oppression of women within the family is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce whilst functionalists ignore this.
This is a useful contribution to our understanding of divorce because it highlights how society's expectations are changing overtime towards marriage and divorce.
4. Point: Another potential reason for the increase in divorce rates is due to the improvement of the financial position of women.
Explain: Women have gradually become less financially dependent on men and this grants them freedom to end unsatisfactory marriages.
Evidence: This is supported by Allan and Crow, they argue that 'marriage is less embedded within the economic system'.
Analysis: This implies that the family is no longer a unit of production, so spouses are no longer dependent on one another financially. Through better educational opportunities, women have access to their own source of income which allows them to not tolerate tense marriages or the absence of love, they can choose to seek out divorce whilst being able to support themselves economically.
Evaluation: Challenging this, the gender pay gap does still exist in some cases, where women are paid less than men. The extent of which they can support themselves is questionable.
This is a useful contribution to our understanding of divorce because it emphasises how the position of women impacts decisions about divorce especially in financial terms.
To conclude, these views on the increase in divorce rate provide us with general ideas but many overgeneralise and may even ignore certain aspects, like Functionalists who ignore the oppression of women which is a major cause of marital conflict. Divorce isn't a cause of one of these factors in isolation, rises in divorce may caused by all of these factors jointly.
5 / 10
Item E
Despite their disagreements, functionalists, Marxists and feminist approaches to the family share certain similarities. They are all structural approaches: they see the family as a structure that performs certain functions - although they disagree about what these functions are and who benefits from them. Similarly, they all assume that by 'the family' we mean the conventional nuclear family. Other sociologists reject this structural approach. For example, the personal life perspective takes a bottom-up view that focuses on people's meanings and how they themselves define what counts as 'family'.
Applying material from Item E and your own knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of structural approaches to our understanding of families and households [20 marks]
Structural approaches take a macro view on society and look at society as a whole.
1. Point: The Functionalist view sees society as a unit based on a value consensus.
Explain: Functionalists believe that all social institutions work together to meet society's functional prerequisites. The family is particularly important, as it meets some of society's essential needs.
Evidence: Functionalist sociologist Murdock outlines 4 essential 'functions' (Item B) that the nuclear family meets, such as: stabilising sex drives, reproduction, primary socialisation of the young and providing its members with economic benefits.
Analysis: This suggests that the nuclear family allows society to thrive, grow and prosper by performing these core functions. The primary socialisation of children is fundamental to ensure society is harmonious through a collective value consensus. The reproduction element ensures that society is carried on. The satisfaction of sex drives prevents social disruption caused by a sexual 'free-for-all'. Finally, the family also provides for its members through the provision of resources such as food and shelter.
Evaluate: Some sociologists believe that these functions don't necessarily have to be done by the family when other social institutions can perform these functions just as well. Feminists and Marxists also challenge this view as they believe Murdock's 'rose-tinted' consensus view ignores exploitation and conflict, for example, domestic violence and child abuse.
The functionalist view shows how the family benefits society, however their view becomes outdated as institutions like the welfare state have begun to replace some of the family functions - this is also known as 'structural differentiation'.
2. Point: The Marxists view society as a source of conflict
Explain: Marxists believe that all social institutions spread the ruling class ideology and encourage capitalism. Notably, Marxists believe that the family performs ideological functions.
Evidence: Which Marx argues is a set of ideas or beliefs that justify inequality and maintain the capitalist system by persuading the masses to accept it as fair, natural or unchangeable.
Analysis: This is demonstrated in the family by socialisation patterns. The family socialises children into a notion that inequality and hierarchy are inevitable. This is shown by parental power over children, which allows them to normalise the idea that someone is always in charge (usually males), hence they are prepared for capitalist employment. As a result, class differences are embedded into societies by traditional family functions.
Evaluation: In challenge to this Feminists criticise the Marxist view for focusing too much on class differences whilst overlooking gender differences and the influence of the patriarchy.
3. Point: The Feminist viewpoint looks at which gender 'benefits' (Item B)
Explain: Overall feminists believe that men benefit. A particular branch of feminism: radical feminists strongly believe that men benefit more than women.
Evidence: Greer believes that to solve gender problems we must create 'matrilocal' households as an alternative to heterosexual family, this interlinks with the idea of separatism.
Analysis: Radical feminists see men as the enemy and the main source of oppression, family and marriage are also seen as patriarchal concepts. As a result, the patriarchy has allowed men to benefit from women's unpaid domestic labour and their sexual services, women are controlled through the threat of domestic/sexual violence. Therefore, women are embedded to carry out the expressive roles within the family because the patriarchal society has socialised them to do so.
Evaluate: Somerville challenges the idea of separatism, heterosexual attraction simply makes the idea hard to execute.
The Feminist view shows us the role of women within families however their theories ignore the progression of women and how they have changed over time, which would imply that families have also changed in response.
4. Point: 'Other sociologists reject this structural approach' (Item B). This viewpoint is known as the personal life perspective.
Explain: This perspective looks that the individual meanings of 'family' instead of simply following conventional meanings of families acting like 'puppets on a string'. This is done by looking at ties beyond blood and marriage. They look at a wide range of relationships including relationships with friends, pets, fictive kin, 'chosen' families and dead relatives.
Evidence: This is supported by Tipper, she found that children frequently saw pets as 'a part of their family'.
Analysis: Structural views would ignore this kind of relationship. However, these non-conventional relationships are still significant; they provide a sense of identity and belonging to some. Additionally, choosing personal relationships and not following a stereotypical family structure allows people to not get stuck in hurtful/disrespectful and potentially abusive tradition family relationships, which provides benefits for them and the people involved.
Evaluation: Even though, the personal life perspective appears to be more accepting, it has been criticised of ignoring the speciality of blood or marriage relationships.
The personal life perspective offers an insight into non-traditional relationships and shows us how these shape families.
In conclusion, the structural perspectives provide useful observations of the potential positive and negative roles the family might have in society, but they tend to ignore the micro view along with relationships that do not fit within the nuclear family.
Item O
In the view of Marxist sociologists, all of society's institutions contribute to maintaining the capitalist system. These institutions include the family, which Marxists see as performing important functions for capitalism. For example, its role in socialising the young helps to ensure that capitalism is provided with the next generation of docile workers. However, critics argue that the Marxist view of the family ignores issues such as family diversity as well as inequalities within the family.
Applying material from Item O and your knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of the work of Marxist sociologists for the study of families and households today [20 marks]
1. Inheritance of Private Property
Point: The Marxist view believes that 'all of society's institutions' (Item O) rely on the modes of production to ensure capitalism is met.
Explain: The modes of production refers to who owns and controls society's productive forces such as tools, machinery and raw materials, land, and labour. In modern society, the capitalist class owns and controls these means of production. As the mode of production evolves, so too does the family.
Evidence: Marx believed that in 'primitive communism' there was no private property and all members owned the means of production communally.
Analysis: Marxists believe that this version of society works better for social equality. There is no distribution of wealth to only one class and socialism ensures that everyone is equal. It means there is no exploitation of the working-class and the oppressive family doesn't exist, instead there were tribes that had no restrictions on sexual relationships. As a result, women and men are free from capitalism and exploitation and society works better.
Evaluation: However, oppression exists within families in communist societies, and this ignores aspects of the family such as domestic abuse in non-capitalist societies.
2. Private Property
Point: Inevitably, the forces of production developed and as this was happening society's wealth began to increase.
Explain: This increased wealth encouraged the idea of private property. Private property was able to be secured by a class of men. This led to the notion of the patriarchal, monogamous nuclear family.
Evidence: Engels believed that monogamy was essential to make ensure the inheritance of private property went to legitimate heirs.
Analysis: As a result, marriage was a way of passing down wealth to only the capitalist class and not the working-class. The monogamous nuclear family also meant that women's sexuality was under male control through marriage. Females had simply become a 'mere instrument for the production of children'. Marxists believe that overthrowing capitalism and private ownership would release women from patriarchal control. A collective ownership of production would mean that the patriarchal family doesn't need to exist since there is nothing to pass down the generations.
Evaluation: 'However, critics argue that the Marxist view of the family ignores issues such as family diversity' (Item O). Marxists tend to assume that the nuclear family is the dominant family type in a capitalist society.
3. Ideological Functions
Point: Marxists argue that the family also performs ideological functions for capitalism.
Explain: The capitalist ideology refers to a set of beliefs or ideas that justify inequality and maintain capitalist society by encouraging the masses to simply accept it and pass it on.
Evidence: Zaretsky believes that the family performs an ideological function of offering a 'safe haven' for workers.
Analysis: This means that the family provides an escape route from the harsh and exploitative nature of the workplace to allow workers to be themselves. Another way the family produces capitalism is by socialisation patterns. Parents socialise their children into the idea that hierarchy and inequality are inevitable. Paternal power over children accustoms them to the idea that someone is always in charge and this prepares them for employment where they have to take orders from capitalist employers.
Evaluation: Zaretsky challenges the idea of a 'safe haven' and believes this is largely an illusion, the family cannot meet its members' needs. For example, it's based on the servitude of women.
4. A unit of consumption
Point: Marxists believe that the family encourages capitalism by acting as a unit on consumption.
Explain & Analyse: The capitalists exploit the labour of a property-less working class in order to extract a profit. Capitalists make a profit by paying workers low wages and selling the products they make at higher prices. The family play a major role in generating profits for capitalists through the sales of consumer goods and this allows the ruling class to maintain their control and ownership of the means of production along with the exploitation of the working class.
Evidence: Marxists argue that this is achieved in three ways. Firstly, by advertising which urges families to consume the latest products. Secondly, through the 'pester power' of children, the media purposely target children as they have the power to convince their parents to buy products. Thirdly, children who lack the most up-to-date items are vulnerable to stigmatisation.
Evaluation: On the other hand, Functionalists argue that Marxists ignore the very real benefits that the family provides for its members, such as caring parents who teach their children the beneficial beliefs and values of society.
In conclusion, Marxists highlight the class differences within society, but they often ignore how far society has progressed for example by the variety of family structures that are found in society today. Moreover, they also ignore the real benefits that the family can provide for its members.
Item B
Recent decades have seen a move to a more diverse range of family arrangements. While some sociologists see this as harmful for society, others welcome it because they see it as bringing greater individual choice about relationships. However, some sociologists argue that the extent of change should not be exaggerated: most people live in something resembling a conventional nuclear family, and many individuals still find their choices limited. For example, while being gay or lesbian is less stigmatised in the past, it is not always easy for people to 'come out'
Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate sociological contributions to our understanding of family diversity [20 marks]
Family diversity refers to the different family structures found in society.
One change that has influenced family diversity is the 'greater individual choice about relationships' (Item B). This collection of ideas is referred to as the individualisation thesis. As outlined by Giddens and Beck, the individualisation thesis argues that traditional social structures such as: gender, class and family have lost their influence over individuals. The thesis suggests that: in the past, people's lives were defined by fixed roles provided by society and this prevented them from choosing their own life course. For example, marriage and taking on gender roles was an expectation. Today's society has fewer fixed roles to follow. This implies that people have become 'disembedded' from traditional roles and structures, which grants freedom for individuals to make their own life choices. Similarly, the 'standard biography' has been replaced with a 'do-it-yourself biography' that has to be constructed by individuals. However, the individualisation thesis has been criticised on many grounds, for instance: the thesis wrongly sees people as 'disembedded', independent individuals whilst ignoring that many of our decisions and choices are made within a social context. This is a useful contribution towards our understanding of family diversity because it highlights how individuals have gained more choice.
Family diversity is seen as 'harmful for society' (Item B) by New Right thinkers. The New Right have a conservative and anti-feminist perspective on the family and are strongly opposed to family diversity. They believe that the nuclear family is the perfect family type. New Right thinkers see the family as 'natural' and is built upon the core biological differences between men and women, and the family is the cornerstone of society; a place of refuge, contentment and harmony. There is a prominent belief that the decline of the traditional nuclear family and the growth of family diversity (such as cohabitation, gay marriage and lone-parenthood) are the main cause of many social problems. For example, lone-parent families are harmful to children by: a lack of discipline, a lack of male role models (leading to delinquency and social instability) and the creation of poverty which burdens the state and the taxpayer. The New Right perspective has been criticised, by suggesting that there is no evidence that children in lone-parent families are more likely to be delinquent than those brought up in a two-parent family of the same social class. This is a useful contribution to our understanding of family diversity because we can examine the potential harmful effects of other types of families.
The functionalist viewpoint rejects family diversity. Functionalists are similar to New Right thinkers, they believe the one best family type is the nuclear family (with a traditional division of labour between men and women) because it can easily slot into society's structure and help maintain it by performing essential functions. As suggested by Parsons, there is a 'functional fit' between the nuclear family and modern society. This is because the nuclear family can adapt to the needs of modern society by providing a geographically and socially mobile workforce. Similarly, the nuclear family also performs two 'irreducible functions', which are the primary socialisation of children into shared norms and values and the stability of adult personalities through providing a relaxing environment to release tensions. These contribute to the overall stability and effectiveness of society. Therefore, the functionalist view believes that the nuclear family is essential to perform these functions, which implies that the nuclear family is the most dominant family type in modern society. As a result, functionalists argue that other family types such as lone-parent families, are abnormal or deviant since they are less able to perform the family's required functions. But, Morgan argues that functionalists make large over-generalisations about the family, a family can be a set of any arrangements as long as the members involved see it as a family. This is a useful contribution to our understanding of family diversity because it shows us what role the family holds in society.
In a postmodern society, greater freedom and choice has allowed individuals to plan their own life course and choose the kind of family and personal relationships that suits their needs. Stacey believes that greater freedom and choice has benefitted women in particular, they have been able to break free from patriarchal oppression and shape their family arrangements to meet their own needs. As a result, women were the main sources of change in the family. For example, many women have chosen to reject the traditional housewife-mother role, to instead pursue careers, and education (as well as divorcing and remarrying). This led to the creation of new family types, to better suit their own needs. One of these new family types were the divorce-extended family, where members were connected by divorce rather than marriage, members could be female and former-in-laws or a man's ex wife and his new partner. For example, one of Stacey's case studies: Pam Gemma created a divorce-extended family by divorcing her husband and cohabiting with a new partner and marrying years later. As the children from Pam's first marriage aged, she formed a divorce-extended family with Shirley (the woman cohabiting with her first husband), they provided financial and domestic help to each other. This casestudy illustrates that postmodern families are diverse and the shape of them depend on the choices of individuals, for instance if they would like to cohabit, marry or divorce etc. Even so, gender structures can still limit the choices of individuals, for example: after a divorce, gender norms usually dictate that women should have custody of their children, and this can limit their opportunity to start new relationships, whereas men are freer to start new relationships. This is a useful contribution of family diversity because it demonstrates how individuals are mapping out their own families based on their choices.
Overall, sociological theories of family diversity do contribute to our understanding of family diversity through concepts such as the individualisation thesis and the post-modern family, but many of these theories ignore aspects such as limitations of choices in particular situations.