New Kings and Kingdoms of Early Medieval India

The Fragmentation of Power in Post-Harsha India

Following the death of Harshavardhana in $647\,CE$, the political landscape of the Indian subcontinent underwent a significant transformation. The lack of a strong central authority led to the dissolution of his empire into numerous small states and chiefdoms, each governed by different dynasties or clans. During this transitional period, a class of warriors and chiefs known as samantas, who had previously served under larger imperial rulers, began to assert their independence. As these samantas gained military and economic strength, they established their own autonomous kingdoms, leading to a climate of constant political competition and disunity as various groups fought to extend their influence. This era, spanning from the $8th\,century$ to the $12th\,century\,CE$, saw the rise of distinct regional powers across the north, east, west, the Deccan, and the south.

The Rajput Dynasties of Northern and Western India

The Rajputs were prominent clans predominantly based in the region of present-day Rajasthan. They were known for creating expansive kingdoms and for their fierce protection of their territories against encroaching Arab and Turkic tribes from Central Asia. Among the principal Rajput clans were the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Chauhans, the Paramaras, and the Chandelas. The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, founded by Nagabhata I, ruled large sections of northern and western India between the $8th\,century$ and the $11th\,century\,CE$. Nagabhata I is specifically remembered for his consistent and successful resistance against Arab invasions after establishing control in Ujjain. Nearly a century later, Nagabhata II captured the historic imperial city of Kannauj and designated it as his capital. The dynasty reached a territorial peak under Bhoja I, whose empire extended from the Himalayan foothills to the River Narmada, and from Bengal to Sind. However, the empire began to disintegrate into independent kingdoms around $950\,CE$, and the dynasty effectively ended around $1019\,CE$ when Mahmud of Ghazni seized control of Kannauj.

The Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, were originally feudatories of the Pratiharas who declared independence as Pratihara power waned. Ruling parts of Rajasthan and neighboring areas from the $6th\,century$ to the $12th\,century\,CE$, they shifted their capital to Ajayameru, or modern-day Ajmer, under King Ajayaraja. The most celebrated Chauhan ruler was Prithviraj Chauhan, who ascended the throne in $1177\,CE$. His life and military valor were immortalized in the poem Prithviraj Raso by the poet Chand Bardai. Prithviraj notably defeated the Turkic invader Mohammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain in $1191\,CE$, though he characteristically allowed the defeated Ghori to leave unharmed. Ghori returned in $1192\,CE$ with a superior force and defeated Prithviraj in the Second Battle of Tarain, a conflict widely regarded as a pivotal turning point in Indian history.

The Paramara dynasty governed the Malwa region from the $10th\,century$ to the $12th\,century\,CE$, with their capital located at Dhar. Historical records like the Harsola Copperplate Grants, composed between $949\,CE$ and $1005\,CE$, suggest the Paramaras were originally feudal lords under the Rashtrakutas. A standout ruler of this line was Raja Bhoj, a philosopher and prolific writer who is distinct from the Pratihara ruler of the same name. The Paramara dynasty eventually fell to the Delhi Sultanate in $1305\,CE$. Additionally, the Chandela dynasty held power in the region of Bundelkhand during this early medieval period.

The Pala Dynasty and Eastern India

In the eastern region of Bengal, a period of political instability followed the death of the powerful ruler Shashanka. Around $750\,CE$, a local chieftain named Gopala founded the Pala dynasty to restore order. Under his son Dharmapala and grandson Devapala, the Pala kingdom expanded significantly to encompass present-day Bengal, Bihar, and parts of Odisha. The Palas were devout Buddhists and were instrumental in the revival of the ancient university at Nalanda. Dharmapala also established the renowned Buddhist monastery and college at Vikramashila. During the early $11th\,century\,CE$, the Pala king Mahipala faced defeat at the hands of the Chola king Rajendra Chola. Following the decline of the Palas in the $12th\,century\,CE$, the Sena dynasty rose to power in Bengal, governing the region until approximately $1245\,CE$.

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty of the Deccan

The Rashtrakutas rose to power under the leadership of Dantidurga and maintained dominance over substantial parts of southern, central, and northern India between the $8th\,century$ and the $10th\,century\,CE$. Dantidurga expanded his realm by defeating the Chalukyas of Badami in present-day Karnataka and the Gurjaras of Malwa, subsequently capturing Kalinga, Kosala, and Srisailam. His successor, Krishna I, is credited with the construction of the magnificent rock-cut Kailashnath Temple at Ellora, one of the most elaborate monuments of its kind globally. A later ruler, Dhruva Dharavarsha, defeated the Palas and Gurjara-Pratiharas to annex Kannauj. During this time, Kannauj surpassed Pataliputra as the premier city of north India because of its strategic proximity to the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plains.

In the $9th\,century\,CE$, Amoghavarsha I established the capital at Manyakheta, where it remained until the empire's eventual collapse. Amoghavarsha I was an accomplished scholar proficient in both Kannada and Sanskrit; he is famous for writing the poem Kavirajamarga in Kannada. The Rashtrakutas ruled for over $200\,years$ before their power was finally broken by the Chalukyas of Kalyan. Other significant dynasties in the Deccan and southern regions included the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, the Pandyas, the Cheras, and the Pallavas.

Rise and Expansion of the Chola Empire

The Cholas, who had been a minor ruling dynasty between the $1st\,century$ and $3rd\,century\,CE$, experienced a grand resurgence in the latter half of the $9th\,century\,CE$. For the next four centuries, they were a dominant force in Indian history. The consolidation and expansion of the empire are largely attributed to Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola. Rajaraja Chola pursued a policy of aggressive military conquest, defeating the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, the Pandyas, the Gangas of Kalinga, and the Cheras of Kerala. He also seized large tracts of the Deccan and parts of Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka).

Rajendra Chola further extended the empire's reach, capturing Vengi and launching a powerful naval fleet into the Bay of Bengal to take control of Sumatra, Malaya, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In around $1023\,CE$, he conducted a successful expedition into northern India, defeating Mahipala of the Pala dynasty and annexing Bihar, Odisha, and Bengal. To commemorate this victory, he established a new capital named Gangaikondacholapuram and assumed the title Gangaikondan, meaning 'Conqueror of Ganga,' as he famously brought water from the river Ganges to his new city. His defeat of the Srivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra led other South-East Asian rulers, such as King Suryavarman I of Cambodia, to seek friendly relations with him. By the $13th\,century\,CE$, the Chola influence waned as they were defeated by the Pandyas and later weakened by invasions from the Delhi Sultanate in $1310\,CE$ and the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Chola Administration and Local Governance

The Chola government was characterized by a highly organized administrative structure that balanced a strong central authority with significant village autonomy. At the apex was the King, who held absolute power. The kingdom was divided into areas governed directly by the king and those held by vassal chiefs. Directly controlled territories were organized into six provinces called mandalams. These were further subdivided into districts known as nadus, which were comprised of groups of villages referred to as kurams or kottams.

The system was remarkably democratic at the local level. Village administration was conducted by assemblies called urs. A kuram or kottam managed its affairs through sabhas or mahasabhas. The mahasabha consisted of learned priests who had been granted land by the rulers and possessed extensive powers, though they remained under the oversight of royal officers known as adhikaris. These sabhas were governed by committees overseeing specific departments such as gardens, irrigation, cultivation, education, land, roads, judiciary, and accounts. Each village maintained its own treasury and meticulously kept records of accounts. This democratic nature is evidenced by the Uttaramerur Inscription from the $10th\,century\,CE$, which details the election process: names of candidates for thirty wards were written on tickets and placed in pots, with winners chosen by a young boy drawing tickets in a public meeting of the Great Assembly overseen by temple priests (nambimar) and an arbitrator (madhyastha).

Economic Structure and Infrastructure under the Cholas

Land revenue served as the primary source of income for the Chola state. The king typically claimed an amount equivalent to $\frac{1}{3}$ of the agricultural produce, paid in either cash or kind. To ensure fairness, land was surveyed and categorized based on its yield. While revenue collection was strictly enforced, kings actively supported farmers in increasing crop yields. Other taxable sources included trade, professional taxes, forests, mines, salt, and irrigation. State funds were directed toward the royal household, palace and temple construction, and essential public welfare projects like roads and dams.

The Cholas were pioneers in advanced irrigation systems. They utilized rocky hollows to create artificial lakes and constructed massive embankments, such as the one at Gangaikondacholapuram, which measured approximately $26\,km$ in length. Notable structures like the Kallanai dam (Grand Anicut) in Tanjore were built across the Kaveri River to manage water storage, which was then distributed through channels to agricultural fields. Militarily, the Cholas maintained a potent force composed of infantry, cavalry, and elephants, with high-quality horses imported from Arabia. However, the most distinctive feature of their military might was their powerful and efficient navy, which was foundational to their control over the South-East Asian maritime regions.

Turkic and Afghan Invasions

Starting toward the end of the $10th\,century\,CE$, Afghan and Turkic tribes from Central Asia began entering India through north-western mountain passes, seeking the legendary wealth of the subcontinent. Sabuktgin, an ambitious Turkic chief of Ghazni, initiated these invasions. His son, Mahmud of Ghazni, continued this pattern, conducting raids between $1010\,CE$ and $1026\,CE$ against cities including Kangra, Mathura, Kannauj, Thanesar, Gwalior, and Somnath. Mahmud was primarily interested in plundering riches rather than establishing a permenant rule over the territories he raided.

Conversely, Mohammad Ghori, a general of the Ghorid dynasty who became the governor of Ghazni around $1160\,CE$, intended to build a lasting empire. After conquering Multan, Peshawar, and Lahore, he entered into conflict with Prithviraj Chauhan. The success of these Turkic invaders is attributed to the chronic lack of unity among Indian rulers, as well as the Turks' superior military organization, discipline, and exceptional skills as warriors on horseback.

Questions & Discussion

True or False Statements:

1. Prithviraj Chauhan won the First Battle of Tarain against Mohammad Ghori. (True)

2. Nagabhata II captured Ujjain and made it his capital. (False; He captured Kannauj and made it his capital.)

3. The Palas set up a learning centre at Nalanda. (False; The text states they revived Nalanda, but Dharmapala established Vikramashila.)

4. Kavirajamarga is a book written in Sanskrit. (False; It was written in Kannada by Amoghavarsha I.)

5. Rajaraja Chola defeated the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. (True)

Who am I? Identities:

1. Under my rule, the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom stretched from the foothills of the Himalayas to the River Narmada and from Bengal to Sind. (Bhoja I)

2. It was during my rule that the Chauhan capital was shifted to Ajmer in the $12th\,century\,CE$. (Ajayaraja)

3. I am a Paramara king sharing my name with a Gurjara-Pratihara king. I am also a philosopher. (Raja Bhoj)

4. I am a Pala king who had to suffer defeat from Rajendra Chola in the early part of the $11th\,century\,CE$. (Mahipala)

5. I am the father of Mahmud of Ghazni. (Sabuktgin)

6. I am the Rashtrakuta king who defeated the Chalukyas of Badami and the Gurjaras of Malwa. (Dantidurga)

Multiple Choice and Conceptual Questions:

Regarding the invasion of various tribes from Central Asia, the death of Harshavardhana in $647\,CE$ created a climate of political disunity that facilitated these incursions. Both the assertion and reasoning are identified as true. Regarding Mahmud of Ghazni, it is noted that while he raided India frequently, he consistently returned to Ghazni because he was interested in wealth rather than territorial administration; it is false to claim his raids were thwarted by Indian kings, as he was largely successful in his objective of plunder.

Mohammad Ghori was able to lay the foundation of an empire due to the lack of unity among Indian rulers and the Turkic army's discipline and skills on horseback. If visiting Bundelkhand in the early medieval period, one would find the Chandelas ruling there. Chand Bardai is the author who wrote the biography of Prithviraj Chauhan. The South-East Asian island kingdoms sought friendly relationships with Rajendra Chola specifically because he possessed a powerful navy which he used to conquer multiple island kingdoms in the region.

Specific Definitions and Analysis:

Samantas are defined as warriors and chiefs who originally served under rulers but eventually grew powerful enough to establish independent kingdoms. During the period under study, Pataliputra lost its status as the leading city of north India to Kannauj because Kannauj offered superior access to the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plains. The title Gangaikondan was adopted by Rajendra Chola after his successful military expedition to the Ganga river. In Chola administration, a mandalam was one of the six main provinces of the kingdom. The Chola administration was considered democratic because it utilized autonomous village councils and yearly elections by casting votes (the pot-ticket system).