HDFS 2.0

The Nature of Adolescence

Adolescence is a transitional period with continuity and discontinuity

“Sturm & Drang” to “Storm & Stress”

  • Not just a time of rebellion, crisis, pathology, and deviance; also a time of evaluation, decision making, commitment, and finding a place in the world…

Multiple influences on the actual life trajectory of every adolescent:

  • Ethnic & Cultural

  • Gender & Age

  • Socioeconomic

  • Lifestyle

Adolescents are exposed to complex options through the peers & media (modeling)

Temptations of drug use and sexual activity

Many adolescents are NOT provided with adequate opportunities & support to become competent adults

Puberty

Puberty: Period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes

  • Puberty is not a single, sudden event

  • The most noticeable changes are signs of physical development

Puberty is NOT the same as adolescence

  • Most important marker of the beginning of adolescence

  • Puberty ends long before adolescence does

Order of Pubertal Changes (Males)

  • Increase in penis and testicle size

  • Appearance of straight pubic hair

  • Minor voice change

  • First ejaculation (which usually occurs through masturbation or a wet dream)

  • Appearance of pubic hair

  • Onset of max. growth in height and weight

  • Growth of hair in armpits

  • More detectable voice changes

  • Growth of facial hair

Order of Pubertal Changes (Females)

  • Breasts enlarge

  • Pubic hair appears

  • Hair appears in the armpits

  • Height increases and hips become wider than shoulders

Menarche: First menstruation, irregular and anovulatory

  • Voice changes not comparable to males

  • By the end, breasts become more fully rounded

Hormonal Changes

Hormones: Powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands & carried through the body by the bloodstream

Puberty is an interaction of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads

  • Hypothalamus and pituitary gland: In the brain

  • Gonads: The testes (males) and ovaries (females)

Hormones

Testosterone: Associated in boys with the development of genitals, an increase in height, & a change in voice

Estradiol: Type of estrogen associated with breast, uterine, & skeletal development

  • Testosterone & estradiol are present in the hormonal makeup of both boys & girls

  • The hormone-behavior link is complex

Timing & Variations in Puberty

The average age of menarche has declined significantly since the mid-19th century WHY?

Basic genetic program for puberty is wired into the species

  • Nutrition, health, and other environmental factors also affect puberty’s timing and makeup

Average range of the beginning of the pubertal sequence:

  • 10 to 13.5 for boys

  • 9 to 15 for girls

Menarche & Spermarche

The key biological event of puberty for most children is when the biological changes associated with reproduction occur.

Menarche

  • The term for the first menstrual period

Spermarche

  • The first ejaculation of sperm

Body Image

Adolescents:

  • Preoccupied with their bodies

  • Develop images of what their bodies are like

Girls:

  • Less happy with their bodies

  • Have more negative body images than boys throughout puberty

Boys:

  • Become more satisfied as they move through puberty probably because their muscle mass increases

Early & Late Maturation

Adolescents who mature earlier or later than their peers perceive themselves differently

Early maturation:

  • Boys: Viewed as a positive

  • Girls: Increases their vulnerability to problems

More likely to smoke, drink, be depressed, have an eating disorder, struggle for earlier independence from their parents, have older friends, date, & earlier sexual experiences

Issues in Adolescent Health

Many of the behaviors that are linked to poor health habits and early death in adults begin during adolescence

Early formation of healthy behavior patterns, such as regular exercise, a diet low in fat & cholesterol, & sleep

  • Has immediate health benefits

  • Helps in adulthood to delay or prevent disability and mortality

Nutrition & Exercise

The % of overweight teens in the United States increased from the early 1990s through 2004

Compared to adolescents in 28 countries, U.S. & British adolescents ate more fried food & less fruits & vegetables

U.S. boys and girls become less active as they reach and progress through adolescence

Exercise & Physical Activity

Adolescent boys are more likely to engage in moderate to vigorous exercise than are girls

Positive physical outcomes:

  • Lower weight, reduced triglyceride levels, lower blood pressure, a lower incidence of type diabetes, lower drug use

Sleep Patterns

45% of adolescents get inadequate sleep on school nights (fewer than 8 hours)

  • 21% of younger adolescents

  • 62% of older adolescents

  • Feeling more sleepy, cranky and irritable

  • Falling asleep in school

  • Being in a depressed mood

  • Drinking caffeinated beverages

Adolescents’ biological clocks undergo a shift as they get older; this seems related to a delay in the nightly release of the sleep-inducing hormone melatonin (released from the pineal gland)

Leading Causes of Adolescent Deaths

1) Accidents:

  • More than ½ of accidental deaths in adolescents are due to unintentional injuries; ¾ of these involve vehicles

2) Homicide:

  • Second-leading cause of death, especially among African-American males

3) Suicide:

  • Adolescent suicide rate has tripled since the 1950s

Substance Use and Abuse

% of U.S. students who used illicit drugs began to decline in the 1980s

BUT, the United States still has one of the highest rates of adolescent drug use of any industrialized nation

Early onset of drinking linked to increased risk of heavy drinking in middle age

Parents play a role in preventing drug abuse

Peers also influence whether adolescents become substance abusers

Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia nervosa: Eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation

Characteristics:

  • Weighing less than 85% of what is considered normal for a person’s age and height

  • Intense fear of gaining weight (perfectionistic)

  • Distorted image of one’s body shape

Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia nervosa: Eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge- and-purge pattern

  • Self-induced vomiting

  • Laxatives

Characteristics:

  • Preoccupied with food

  • Strong fear of becoming overweight

  • Depressed or anxious (perfectionistic)

Social & Emotional Development in Adolescence

Identity

Adolescent identity is a self-portrait composed in many domains: School, Church, Home, Relationship, Leisure, Sport

Research on Identity

Experiencing a crisis and one’s level of commitment are the 2 key components of identity:

Crisis: The exploratory period of identity development

Commitment: Personal investment in identity

Marcia’s Four Statuses of Identity

1) Identity diffusion- Individuals have not yet experienced a crisis of identity (no exploration), nor have they made any choices as to their ultimate identity (no commitment)

2) Identity foreclosure- Individuals have not yet experienced a crisis of identity (no exploration), but have made substantial choices as to their ultimate identity (high commitment)

3) Identity moratorium- Individuals have experienced a crisis of identity (high exploration), but yet to make substantial choices as to their ultimate identity (no commitment)

4) Identity achievement- Individuals have experienced a crisis of identity (high exploration), AND have made substantial choices as to their ultimate identity (high commitment)

Erikson’s View

Erikson: One of the first to understand the centrality of identity to adolescent development

5th stage: identity vs. identity confusion

Parenting Adolescents

Autonomy and Attachment

Adolescents’ push for autonomy and responsibility puzzles and angers many parents

Boys are given more independence than girls

Secure attachment may be important in adolescents’ relationships with parents

PARENTING 101: As the adolescent pushes for autonomy, the wise adult relinquishes control where the adolescent can make reasonable decisions, but continues to guide the adolescent

Parent-Adolescent Conflict

Involves the everyday events of family life:

  • Keeping a bedroom clean

  • Dressing neatly

  • Getting home by curfew

  • Use of the phone

Rarely involves major dilemmas such as drugs or delinquency

Often escalates during early adolescence, remains somewhat stable during the high school years, and then lessens as adolescence ends

Models of the parent-adolescent relationship

Old model: As adolescents mature, they detach themselves from parents and move into a world of

autonomy apart from parents

  • Parent-adolescent conflict is intense and stressful throughout adolescence

New model: Emphasizes parents as important attachment figures and support systems

  • In most families, parent-adolescent conflict is moderate rather than severe

  • Everyday negotiations and minor disputes not only are normal but serve a positive function

Staying Close but Not Controlling

For many years, researchers have noticed a strong correlation between parental monitoring & children’s behavior.

  • Teenagers are open with parents they trust and get along with.

  • Parents who are too controlling and whose children feel disrespected may even be more likely to begin rule-breaking, using substances, lying, and getting into trouble with the law

The critical factor is the quality of the relationship, NOT the monitoring itself

Rites of Passage

Rite of passage: Ceremony or ritual that marks an individual’s transition from one status to another

  • Gain access to sacred adult practices, to knowledge, and to sexuality

  • Often involve some form of ritual death and rebirth, or by means of contact with the spiritual world

Rites of Passage in the US

No universal ceremony to mark passage from adolescence to adulthood

Religions

  • Judaism: Bar and Bat Mitzvah

  • Catholicism: Confirmation

  • Native Americans: Spirit Walks and Sun Dances

Schools

  • Graduation ceremonies

Social organizations

  • Fraternities, sororities, teams

Peer Groups

Standards of peer groups and the influence of cliques, groups, and crowds become increasingly important during adolescence

  • Cliques: Small groups ranging from 2 to about 12; members are usually same sex and about the same age; develop an in-group identity

  • Groups: Medium-sized group; membership based on status or activity; A lot of time spent together

  • Crowds: Larger and less personal groups; membership based on reputation; and they may or may not spend much time together

Making Friends

  • Teenagers tend to befriend people who are similar to them, a tendency known as homophily.

  • Adolescents with good social skills and good relationships with their families have more positive friendships.

  • Adolescents who can assert themselves, express their warmth, and back off in times of conflict tend to have better and closer relationships in the future.

Friendships

Importance of adolescent friendships:

  • Friends are important in shaping the development of children and adolescents

  • Everyone has basic social needs and friends help meet social needs

  • Teenagers are motivated to seek out close friends

  • Foreshadows the quality of romantic relationships in adulthood

Dating and Romantic Relationships

Dating can be a form of recreation, a source of status, a setting for learning about close relationships, and a way of finding a mate

3 stages of romantic relationships:

  • Entering: “Crushes”, Group dating, Triggered by puberty (typically ~11 to 13)

  • Exploring: Mutual attraction, Casual dating, Usually short lived (typically ~14 to 16)

  • Consolidating: Strong emotional bond, More serious romantic relationship (typically ~17 to 19+)

Sociocultural Contexts and Dating

Are there differences in dating patterns among various groups?

Values, religious beliefs, and traditions often dictate:

  • The age at which dating begins

  • How much freedom in dating is allowed

  • Whether dates must be chaperoned by adults or parents

  • The roles of males and females in dating

  • Acceptance of gay or lesbian partners

Dating and Adjustment

There is a link between romantic relationships and +/- adjustment

Those who date are more likely to have

  • Higher levels of social acceptance

  • Higher levels of friendship and romantic competence

But early dating is associated with adolescent pregnancy and problems at home and school

Juvenile Delinquency

Juvenile delinquent: Label applied to an adolescent who breaks the law or engages in behavior that is considered illegal

  • Delinquency rates among minority groups and lower SES youth are especially high

  • These groups have less influence over the judicial decision- making process and may be judged more delinquent

Causes of Delinquency

Many causes have been proposed, including heredity, identity problems, community influences, and family experiences

Adolescents with a negative identity may find support for their delinquent image among peers, reinforcing the negative identity

  • Norms of many lower-SES peer groups and gangs are antisocial

Research on Delinquency

Causes may include: Low parental monitoring

Family discord

Inconsistent and inappropriate discipline

Sibling influences

Having delinquent peers

Depression

Adolescent girls consistently have higher rates of depression than adolescent boys

  • Females 2x that of males

Genetic influences + Family factors

Poor peer relationships are associated with adolescent depression

Problems in adolescent romantic relationships can also trigger depression, especially for girls

Suicide

Suicidal behavior escalates in adolescence and then increases further in emerging adulthood

Suicide is the third-leading cause of death in ages 10 to 19

Although a suicide threat should always be taken seriously, far more adolescents contemplate or attempt it unsuccessfully than actually commit it

Gender Differences in Suicide

Females:

  • More likely to attempt

  • Mechanisms: More likely to cut their wrists, asphyxiate, or take an overdose of sleeping pills

Males:

  • More likely to succeed

  • Mechanisms: More likely to use lethal means, such as guns

Interrelation of Problems

Four most prevalent problems that affect adolescents:

  • Drug abuse

  • Juvenile delinquency

  • Sexual problems

  • School-related problems

Those who have more than one of these problems are more at risk

Emerging Adulthood

Emerging adulthood: Thought of as the transition

from adolescence to adulthood

  • Normally occurs between

18 and 25 years of age (college)

Five key features:

1) Identity exploration (especially in love and work)

2) Instability

3) Self-focused

4) Feeling “in-between”

5) The age of possibilities when individuals have an opportunity to transform their lives

A Still-Maturing Brain

• During early adulthood, the brain continues to be in a state of flux, enabling young adults to adapt to changing circumstances and new roles and powering them to learn new skills.

• At around age 20, the areas of the brain that relate to social function experience their peak levels of myelination.

• Stronger regional connections continue to build across the regions of the brain.

• Emotional and social regions of the brain are still particularly reactive to social experiences.

Markers of Adulthood

External markers:

• Finishing school

• Establishing a household

• Finding work

• Committing to a long-term relationship

• Having children

Internal markers:

• Self-recognition

• Emotional maturity

An Important Transition

The high school to college transition is an important one developmentally:

  • Top-dog phenomenon: Once again, one transfers from the oldest/most powerful group of students to the youngest/least powerful

  • It involves movement to a larger, more impersonal school structure

  • Includes interaction with peers from more diverse geographical and ethnic backgrounds

  • Has an increased focus on achievement and its assessment

Positive AND Negative outcomes in many domains

Physical Performance

Most early adults achieve peak physical performance between the ages of 19 and 26

Athletes: Different in different sports

Signs of decline:

  • Sagging chins and protruding abdomens

  • Lessening of physical abilities

BUT, sensory systems show little change in early adulthood

Health

Emerging adults have more than twice the mortalityrate of adolescents

Greater risk of chronic health problems:

  • Cancer

  • Cardiovascular disease

  • Diabetes

Two primary ISSUES:

(1) Few stop to think about how their personal lifestyles will affect health later

(2) Bad health habits engaged in during adolescence increase in early adulthood

Obesity

Defined by the CDC as having a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or more

Linked to a greater risk of chronic health problems

Obesity also associated with mental health problems

US has the highest percentage of obese adults in the industrialized world

  • Men: 36%

  • Women: 32%

Dieting and Exercise

Dieting has become an obsession with many Americans

  • Few are successful in keeping weight off long-term…

The most effective programs include aerobic exercise:

  • Sustained exercise that stimulates heart and lung activity

Substance Abuse

By mid-20s, many young adults have reduced their use of alcohol…

  • “Pregaming”

  • Binge drinking (5+ drinks in a row)

  • More common among men than women

Problems include:

  • Missing classes

  • Physical injuries

  • Troubles with police

  • Having unprotected sex

  • Extreme binge drinking (10+ drinks in a row)

Sexual Activity

Most (60%) 18-year-olds have experienced sexual intercourse

But the average age of marriage in the US is: for Males 28; for Females 26

  • So ... Emerging adulthood (18-25) is a time when most individuals are both sexually active and unmarried

Patterns:

  • Males have more sexual partners in emerging adulthood

  • Casual sex is most common in emerging adulthood

Attitudes and Behavior regarding Sex

Americans tend to fall into three categories:

  • 1/3 have sex twice a week or more

  • 1/3 have sex a few times a month

  • 1/3 have sex a few times a year or not at all

Facts:

  • Married and cohabiting couples have sex more regularly

  • Most Americans do not engage in kinky sexual acts

  • Adultery is the exception, not the rule

  • Men think about sex more than women do

Undesired Sexual Attention

Sexual harassment: Manifestation of power of one person over another

  • Ranges from inappropriate sexual remarks and physical contact to blatant propositions and sexual assaults (62% of college women)

  • May result in psychological consequences for the victim

Goal of Prevention: To provide equal opportunities to develop a career and obtain education in a climate free of sexual harassment

Rape

Forcible sexual intercourse with a person who does not give consent

  • Male rapists (~90%) share the following characteristics:

  • Aggression enhances their sense of power or masculinity

  • Are angry at women in general

  • Want to hurt and humiliatetheir victims

Date/Acquaintance Rape

Coercive sexual activity directed at someone with whom the victim is at least casually acquainted

  • 2/3 of college women report having been date-raped or experienced attempted date rape at least once

  • 2/3 of college men admit that they fondle women against their will

  • 1/2 of college men admit to forcing sexual activity

Rape Victims

Rape is a traumatic experience (victim and family)

Victims initially feel shock and numbness and often are acutely disorganized

As victims strive to get their lives back to normal, they may experience:

  • Depression

  • Fear

  • Anxiety

  • Increased substance use

  • Increased sexual dysfunctions

Stability and Change from Childhood to Adulthood

Stability:

  • The first 20 years of life set the course for an adult’s socioemotional development

  • Role of Attachment

Change:

  • Socioemotional development in adults:

  • Adaptive integration of emotional experiences

  • Creation of enjoyable relationships with others

The Role of Attachment in Adulthood

Secure attachment style

  • Adults have positive views of relationships

Insecure-Avoidant attachment style

  • Adults are hesitant to get involved in romantic relationships

Insecure-Anxious attachment style

  • Adults demand closeness, are less trusting, and more emotional, jealous, and possessive

Love and Close Relationships

Love: Vast and complex territory of human behavior, spanning a range of relationships that includes:

1. Companionate love

2. Romantic love

3. Fatuous love

Consummate love

  • Sternberg proposed a theory of love in which love can be thought of as a triangle with three main dimensions:

  • Passion is physical and sexual attraction to another

  • Intimacy relates to the emotional feelings of warmth, closeness, and sharing in a relationship

  • Commitment is the cognitive appraisal of the relationship and the intent to maintain the relationship

Cohabitating Adults

Cohabitation: Living together in a sexual relationship without being married

Disadvantages:

  • Disapproval by parents

  • Difficulty owning property jointly

  • Legal rights on the dissolution of the relationship are less certain

  • Elevated risk of partner violence

Advantages ?

Trends in Marriage

  • Changing norm of male-female equality

  • Marital relationships are more fragile and intense

  • Today: More than 90 percent of U.S. women still marry at some point in their lives

  • Projections: this rate will likely drop into 80-90% range

  • Marriages in adolescence are more likely to end in divorce than marriages in adulthood

  • Average duration of a marriage in the United States is currently just over nine years

Benefits of a Good Marriage
Individuals in happy marriages…

  • Live longer

  • Are healthier …than either divorced individuals or those who are unhappily married

  • Individuals in unhappy marriages may experience:

  • High blood pressure

  • Heart disease

  • Anxiety

  • Depression

  • Substance abuse

Making Marriage Work

Gottman: Five main principles determining whether a marriage will work:
1) Establishing “love maps” (knowledge of each others’ life and world)
2) Nurturing fondness and admiration
3) Turning toward each other instead of away
4) Letting your partner influence you
Creating shared meaning

Gender and Communication
Tannen distinguishes two forms of communications:
Rapport talk: Language of conversation; a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships

  • Preferred by women

  • Men’s lack of interest bothers many women

  • Report talk: Talk that is designed to give information;
    includes public speaking

  • referred by men

Divorced Adults
Increases in divorce are correlated with:

  • Youthful marriage

  • Low educational level

  • Low income

  • Not having a religious affiliation

  • Divorced parents

  • Having a baby before marriage
    Additional characteristics increase the likelihood of divorce:

  • Alcoholism

  • Domestic violence

  • Infidelity

  • Inadequate division of household labor

Hetherington recommends:

  • Think of divorce as a chance to grow personally and to develop more positive relationships

  • Make decisions carefully

  • Focus more on the future than the past

  • Use your strengths and resources to cope with difficulties

  • Don’t expect to be successful and happy in everything you do