07 - After Stalin [1953-1956] - Stalin's Legacy and the Unrest in Eastern Europe

The Post-Stalin Transition and the New Soviet Leadership

• Historical Context (Early 1950s): Throughout Eastern Europe, millions of people were mobilized under the directive of Moscow to build a "communist paradise," toiling under plans dictated by the Soviet Union and marching under the banners of Joseph Stalin.

• The Death of Stalin ($1953$): In March $1953$, the Soviet Union mourned the death of Joseph Stalin, who had ruled supreme for nearly three decades. His death caused widespread anxiety, with many Soviet citizens feeling as if the world was about to collapse, viewing Stalin as a father figure despite his ruthless rule and neglect of their welfare.

• Collective Leadership: Stalin died without naming a successor. A collective leadership emerged to manage the superpower, consisting of:

  • Georgy Malenkov

  • Lavrentiy Beria (Chief of the Secret Police)

  • Vyacheslav Molotov

  • Nikita Khrushchev

• The American Response:

  • Subsequent to Stalin's death, a new US administration took office: President Eisenhower, Secretary of State Dulles, and Vice President Nixon.

  • They pledged to "rollback" the frontiers of Soviet power, accusing the previous Truman administration of being "soft on communism."

  • A policy tension existed: while Dulles spoke of liberation, Eisenhower insisted on achieving it strictly through "peaceful means," making the mechanics of a true rollback unclear.

The German Democratic Republic (GDR) and the $1953$ Uprising

• The Regime of Walter Ulbricht: Stalin had installed Walter Ulbricht as the leader of East Germany. Ulbricht maintained a regime servile to Moscow and intensified Stalinist developments post-$1953$.

  • Economic Focus: Priority was given to heavy industry to satisfy the Soviet economy.

  • Living Conditions: Basic needs were neglected; coal, heating, and electricity were rationed. Electricity for domestic use was often entirely unavailable.

  • Control: The secret police (Stasi) utilized informers to suppress opposition. Churches were closed and censorship was absolute.

• The Refugee Crisis: Thousands of East Germans fled to the Western sectors of Berlin (British, American, and French). Following Stalin's death, refugee numbers reached record proportions.

• The Production Quota Crisis (June $1953$): Ulbricht demanded increased work output.

  • Specific Example: A worker formerly given $4$ minutes to manufacture a screw was suddenly required to do it in $2.5$ minutes.

• The East Berlin Uprising (June $16$-$17$, $1953$):

  • Popular anger erupted at construction sites. Workers (locksmiths, masons, carpenters) marched through East Berlin.

  • Demonstrators chanted for the removal of work quotas and tore down symbols of Soviet dominance like the hammer and sickle.

  • Soviet Intervention: As government authority collapsed, the Soviet authorities deployed four tanks abreast into the crowds. Soviet and East German troops killed at least $40$ people and arrested thousands.

  • This event marked the first time the Soviet sector was closed off from the rest of the city. Western powers (Britain, France, US) prioritized maintaining access routes to West Berlin and chose not to intervene physically.

Strategic Realignment and the Formation of Blocs

• The Re-election of Konrad Adenauer: In September $1953$, Adenauer was re-elected as West Germany's chancellor with the goal of integrating into NATO as a defensive barrier against the USSR.

• The Entry of West Germany into NATO ($1955$): With American backing, West Germany was allowed to form an army and join the alliance.

• The Warsaw Pact ($1955$): The Soviet Union countered by forming its own military alliance, binding satellite armies to the Soviet High Command and legitimizing Soviet troop presence in Eastern Europe.

• The Austrian Peace Treaty ($1955$): In a move to reduce European tension and show goodwill, the Soviet Union (represented by Molotov) joined the West in signing a treaty to end the occupation of Austria.

  • Requirement: Austria promised permanent neutrality in exchange for the withdrawal of all foreign troops.

Khrushchev’s Rise and the De-Stalinization Speech

• Consolidation of Power: Khrushchev outmaneuvered Malenkov and Molotov, eventually eliminating Beria (who was executed in late $1953$ on charges of spying for the West).

• Reconciliation with Yugoslavia ($1955$): Khrushchev visited President Tito to repair the rift caused by Stalin. He acknowledged that Yugoslavia had fought fascism independently and that the USSR had been wrong to expel them from the bloc.

• The $20$th Soviet Party Congress ($1956$):

  • The "Secret Speech": Khrushchev delivered an astounding speech exposing Stalin's cruelties, specifically his orders for the imprisonment and execution of loyal communists and soldiers.

  • Distribution: Information leaked via a leaflet read at party meetings. The CIA obtained a copy through Israeli intelligence, and Radio Free Europe (RFE) broadcast the text repeatedly for $24$ hours a day.

  • Psychological Impact: The revelation that "Stalin is God" had been a fallacy caused a collapse of faith among many party members.

The Polish October ($1956$)

• Poznan Protests (June $1956$): Polish workers demanding "bread, liberty, and freedom" were met with tanks; $74$ people were killed. The regime was shocked that the uprising was led by genuine workers rather than intellectuals.

• Władysław Gomułka: A patriotic communist imprisoned under Stalin, he was chosen as the new leader by Polish reformers without consulting Moscow.

• Soviet Confrontation: Khrushchev flew to Warsaw while Soviet troops advanced on the city.

  • Gomułka's Defense: Backed by the Polish army, Gomułka promised loyalty to the Warsaw Pact in exchange for domestic autonomy.

  • Outcome: Khrushchev backed down; Gomułka secured greater freedom for Poland within the communist framework.

  • US Position: Secretary of State Dulles clarified on national television that the US would not send armed forces into Poland or East Germany to avoid a full-scale world war.

The Hungarian Revolution ($1956$)

• Leadership Change: The Soviet leader Mikoyan forced the resignation of the ruthless Maty
  s R
  kosi, telling him the "Soviet leadership has decided you are ill."

• Outbreak of Revolution: Inspired by Poznan, students and workers in Budapest issued $14$ demands, including free speech and the withdrawal of Soviet troops.

• Key Symbols: The removal of the communist emblem from the Hungarian flag and the toppling of the record-sized Stalin monument.

• Imre Nagy: Elevated to Prime Minister, Nagy eventually embraced the movement, declaring it a "fight for freedom" rather than a counter-revolution.

• Military Conflict:

  • Civilians used Molotov cocktails and rifles against Soviet tanks.

  • A brief ceasefire was arranged, and Soviet troops initially withdrew from Budapest.

• The Global Distraction: The Suez Crisis: Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt's Suez Canal. This diverted Western attention and gave Khrushchev a window to act with impunity in Hungary.

• The Crackdown (November $4$, $1956$):

  • Khrushchev decided to use force after pressure from China and fears of a total collapse of the Soviet sphere.

  • Nagy declared Hungarian neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.

  • The Soviet Army re-entered Budapest, treating the intervention as a mission to protect against "terrorism."

  • The Role of Radio Free Europe: RFE messages encouraged Hungarians to "hang on" for three more weeks, implying Western help was coming. No help arrived.

• Aftermath: Thousands were killed, Imre Nagy was executed, and $200,000$ Hungarians fled to Austria before the Iron Curtain was resealed.

Questions & Discussion

• Participant Discussion on East Berlin: Charles, a witness, noted that "marching through the streets was almost kicking off a revolution." Karl Scherdewan described the GDR leadership as "leaderless" during the peak of the $1953$ crisis.

• Interview with Khrushchev’s Son: He noted his father’s struggle with the decision to use force in Hungary, wavering between "yes" and "no" for several days before the final order was given.

• Hungarian Revolutionary Experience: An anonymous female student recounted pinning national colors to her army cap. A young fighter named Valo described the fear of using a gun for the first time and the motivation provided by seeing children as young as $14$ or $15$ years old dying for the cause.