The self in Action

Solve in Action: Planning, Goals, and Meaning

Part 1: Planning, Goals, and Meaning

The lecture begins with an anecdote about the Roadrunner and Coyote cartoon, where the Coyote catches the Roadrunner, prompting him to contemplate the meaning of his life. This scenario sets the stage for a discussion about the role of meaning in human behavior, contrasting it with behaviorism, which focuses solely on stimulus and response.

Behaviorism vs. Meaning

Behaviorism, exemplified by Skinner's conditioning experiments, treats the brain as a "black box" and focuses on observable behavior. However, this approach struggles to explain complex human actions driven by meaning, such as those of a terrorist. Understanding the meaning behind actions is crucial for comprehending human behavior.

Meaning Learned Through Culture

Human actions are primarily based on meaning, which is learned through culture. Culture acts as a network of meaning that influences behavior. Examples used: whale hunting is acceptable in some cultures but not others.

The Influence of Thinking

Thinking allows us to utilize meaning. As William James stated, "thinking is for doing." Mental imagery can influence physical performance. For example, watching tennis can improve one's own tennis skills by unconsciously learning the movements.

Experiment by Taylor and Pham (1996)

• Group A: Tracked study habits.

• Group B: Imagined hard work and good results.

• Group C: Imagined only the good end result.

Results: Group B performed the best. This experiment shows that imagining is not enough you need to also imagine the journey/hard work too.

Levels of Meaning

Different levels of meaning exist, and their impact can be assessed using the "bite test." Higher levels of meaning have a greater emotional impact. People focus on lower levels of meaning for practical problems and higher levels for cultural values. High levels of meaning can invoke feelings such as guilt.

Example: Second World War

During World War II, few soldiers actually fired their weapons. One explanation is that soldiers operated on a higher level of meaning, recognizing the shared humanity of their enemies (families, similar individuals). Training methods were changed to focus on lower levels of meaning. Modern military training uses computer games to focus on scoring points, reducing focus on the consequences of killing.

Test Anxiety

Test anxiety often stems from focusing on a higher level of meaning (consequences of failure). Reducing test anxiety can be achieved by focusing on a lower level of meaning (answering questions, focusing on the pen and paper).

Chains of Views

Views at a higher level of meaning are more difficult to change. People are more reluctant to change their views at a higher level of meaning. Altering behavior can involve shifting to a low level of meaning and then back to a high level.

Entity vs. Incremental Theorists

Entity theorists believe that traits are fixed, while incremental theorists believe they are malleable. Incremental theorists enjoy learning and challenges and attribute failure to external factors. Entity theorists attribute failure to internal factors.

• Entity Theorists: Believe traits are fixed, failure is internal, success is external.

• Incremental Theorists: Believe traits are malleable, failure is external, success is internal.

Goals and Culture

Goals are influenced by culture. Gender differences in career choices and risk-taking behavior reflect culturally influenced goals. For example, 97% of risky jobs are taken by men. Mortality at work is 10:1 (men to women).

Goals and Animals

Goals link values and action. Animals typically react to changes without having real goals. For example, squirrels collect nuts due to temperature changes, not a conscious plan for winter. Some animals, like monkeys that save stone tools, show signs of anticipating the future.

Goals determined by inner processes and cultural factors. For example, becoming a whale hunter versus an anti-whale campaigner.

Goal Setting

Setting and pursuing goals is a key function of the self.

1. Choosing Among Possible Goals: Complex process based on internalized values and social acceptance.

2. Evaluating Feasibility and Desirability:

Mindsets

Mindsets differ when setting versus pursuing goals. When setting goals, people tend to be realistic. When pursuing goals, they tend to be optimistic.

Goals help to get back on track after an interruption. For example, if studying and distracted by Netflix, the goal of completing a degree helps resume studying.

Conscious and Automatic Systems

• Conscious System: Sets goals, resumes activity after interruption, uses goal shielding (protecting a goal from distraction), and devises alternative plans. For example, if wanting to be CEO but not internally then apply externally.

• Automatic System: Reminds us of the goal on an unconscious level.

Zeigarnik Effect

The Zeigarnik effect is an automatic response where the brain remembers incomplete tasks. Incomplete tasks are easily remembered. This effect helps us get back on track. For example, the e worm effect is when a song is stuck in your head. Listen to the whole song to get rid of it.

For exam preparation, don't finish reading a chapter completely before sleeping. Leave a few pages open to leverage the Zeigarnik effect and enhance learning overnight.

Reaching Goals

Goals are interlinked in a hierarchy (distal (higher level of meaning goals, eg CEO) and proximal goals). Too many only distal goals is not taking the necessary steps. Only proximal goals are an aimless ship.

Specific guidelines motivate people to work on goals. For example, Golwitzer's experiment showed that participants who made specific plans during Christmas were more likely to finish their assignments on time and achieve better grades.

Daily plans can be not as effective as monthly plans. They can be too detailed and rigid, becoming discouraging. People with daily plans become disheartened much easier is goals weren't made.

Planning Fallacy

Once a goal is chosen, plans can be overly optimistic; this is called the planning fallacy. Suggests that people have positive illusions about their own plans and can be realistic with other plans. Ask a colleague how long they would take to write an essay rather than relying on what you think.

Future plans are more optimistic and unrealistic, while short-term plans focus more on practical issues. In one experiment participants were asked if they were interested to buy a ticket for a concert and they were either offered a cheap ticket or an expensive ticket and when they were asked, okay, the concert is tomorrow, would you like to buy the cheap ticket or the expensive ticket? Participants were way more likely to buy the cheap ticket and when they said okay the concert is next year they were just as likely to buy the cheap ticket versus the expensive ticket.

to accept a difficult public speech next year is more likely than next week when you focus on practical concerns/anxiety.

Recap of Part 1

• Human behavior depends on meaning and culture.

• Discussion of incremental versus entity theorists.

• Goals are ideas of some desired future state.

• Pursuing goals requires planning.

• The Zeigarnik effect states that people remember incomplete tasks better than uncompleted tasks.

• Goal shielding is the process of keeping others from interfering with your goals.

• People's plans tend to be overly optimistic, particularly over a longer time span.