Revivalism, Reform, and Romanticism in the Antebellum Period

The antebellum period signified a significant shift in American Christianity due to humanism.
- Humanism had transformed Christianity gradually, eluding much notice.
- Orthodoxy diminished as Christians abandoned the doctrine of original sin.
- An optimistic view of human nature emerged along with a belief in the potential for lasting moral and social progress.
Some elements of eighteenth-century Epicurean humanism were alarmingly rejected due to their focus on cold reason and supernatural skepticism.
- Despite this, aspects of Platonic humanism were adopted by many Christians, which conflicted with orthodox theism.
- Certain Romantic writers, especially Transcendentalists, fully replaced Christianity with Platonic humanism.
Nationalism became a unifying factor across all classes and regions, possibly forming a type of humanism.

In the early nineteenth century, the United States experienced a second wave of religious revivalism.
- Similar to the Great Awakening, the Second Great Awakening served as a reaction against rationalism and materialism.
A faction of affluent religious rationalists openly attacked orthodox Christianity, leading to the creation of Unitarianism.
- Unitarians rejected the Holy Trinity, believing instead in a singular, unitary God.
- Thomas Paine's criticism in "The Age of Reason" labeled the Bible as "a book of lies, wickedness, and blasphemy," challenging the divine nature of its teachings.
Universalism emerged among less affluent individuals, promoting the idea of universal salvation after penance.
- The doctrine contradicted traditional views of eternal damnation, with Universalists believing that God was too good to condemn souls.
- This movement was alarming to orthodox denominations amid social instability from the Industrial Revolution.
Revivalist ministers catalyzed broad religious fervor, igniting the nation.

The movement began in central Kentucky, linked to the lives of community-seeking frontiersmen.
Figures such as James McGready led impactful summer revivals starting in 1795, culminating in 1800-1.
- McGready contrasted God's wrath towards unrepentant sinners with his mercy for those seeking forgiveness.
- Historian John Boles noted the emotional approach of sermons, focusing on the story of Jesus’ suffering to inspire feelings of love, guilt, and forgiveness.
- The sermon’s aim was to evoke inner feelings rather than to instill fear alone.
McGready’s revivals contributed to increased morality in Kentucky, leading observers to remark on the state's religious transformation.
- The revival experience spread throughout the South and into regions such as Ohio and New York.
The camp meeting, a new institution for large gatherings for inspiration and conversion, became popular.
- The peak event occurred at Cane Ridge in 1801, with attendance estimates of up to 20,000 people over six days.
The eastern United States also engaged with revivalism, notably through Timothy Dwight’s presidency at Yale.
- Dwight’s leadership led to six revivals over twenty-five years, countering Unitarian influence.
Following his era, missionaries were sent to India and Africa, further indicating the global outreach of revivalist sentiment.

Finney's conversion in 1821 marked his emergence as a revival leader.
- He became a nationally renowned minister, emphasizing a proactive approach to revivalism contrary to predestination.
- Finney's ministry criticized societal commercialism which he believed compromised spirituality.
- He utilized innovative techniques such as newspaper ads and direct outreach to share his message.
- He authored manuals on revival methods, becoming the first nationally known American minister.
Finney's leadership at Oberlin College (established in 1835) was characterized by its inclusive admission policies and its strong antislavery stance.
- Although he favored the conversion of slaveholders, many of Finney's students became prominent abolitionists.
He argued that revivals could be a means of predestined repentance, blending traditional beliefs with new revivalist methods.
- Finney aspired for national transformation through revival akin to a spiritual Pentecost.
- The rise in the number of ministers from 1776-1845 highlighted the impact of the awakening on church revitalization.

The Second Great Awakening brought about the emergence of various new religious denominations.
- The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon Church) was among the most distinct and controversial.

The Mormons faced persecution for introducing new scriptures (Book of Mormon) that many deemed blasphemous.
- Their doctrine allowed polygamy, which contradicted traditional biblical teachings and led to scandal.
- Joseph Smith, the founder, claimed to have received revelations supporting such practices.
Smith's later teachings included polytheism, suggesting that both Jesus and Lucifer were divine offspring of the supreme deity, Elohim.
The concept of an eternal universe and the potential for humans to achieve godhood was central to Mormon belief.
- Mormons held that the deities, including Elohim, were essentially human in form, complicating traditional Christian doctrines.
Controversial practices like posthumous baptism were adopted to extend salvation to ancestors, influencing community genealogy practices.

Mormons’ tight-knit communities prompted unease among Protestants regarding their potential societal influence and governance ambitions.