PY141 Final Husson University

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved to progress healthily.

  1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year)

    • Conflict: Trusting caregivers and the world vs. developing suspicion and fear.

    • Implications: A strong sense of trust leads to a foundation of security; failure leads to fear and suspicion.

  2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Toddler, 1-3 years)

    • Conflict: Developing independence vs. feelings of doubt and shame about abilities.

    • Implications: Encouragement fosters independence; overprotection leads to self-doubt.

  3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3-6 years)

    • Conflict: Initiative in planning and doing activities vs. guilt from overstepping or making mistakes.

    • Implications: Success builds confidence; failure leads to feelings of guilt and inhibition.

  4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6-12 years)

    • Conflict: Mastery of skills vs. feelings of inferiority.

    • Implications: A sense of competence builds self-esteem; failure leads to feelings of inadequacy.

  5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 years)

    • Conflict: Developing a personal identity vs. confusion about one’s role in life.

    • Implications: A strong sense of identity results in clarity; role confusion can cause uncertainty about future.

  6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18-40 years)

    • Conflict: Forming intimate relationships vs. isolation from others.

    • Implications: Successful relationships lead to intimacy; failure leads to isolation and loneliness.

  7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years)

    • Conflict: Contributing to society and future generations vs. stagnation or self-absorption.

    • Implications: Contributing leads to a sense of accomplishment; stagnation leads to feelings of uselessness.

  8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years)

    • Conflict: Reflection on life with either satisfaction or regret.

    • Implications: Integrity leads to wisdom and peace; despair leads to regret and bitterness.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development in children:

  1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years)

    • Achievement: Object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen).

    • Limitation: Limited understanding of the world, focused mainly on sensory input.

  2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

    • Achievement: Symbolic thought and language development.

    • Limitation: Egocentrism (difficulty in understanding others' perspectives) and lack of conservation (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape).

  3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

    • Achievement: Logical thinking and conservation (understanding quantity, volume, and number).

    • Limitation: Thinking is still concrete and not abstract.

  4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and older)

    • Achievement: Abstract reasoning, hypothetical-deductive reasoning.

    • Limitation: Adolescents may experience idealism or overestimate their cognitive abilities.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development, each with two stages:

  1. Preconventional Morality

    • Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation (moral reasoning based on avoiding punishment).

    • Stage 2: Self-Interest Orientation (moral reasoning based on benefits to oneself).

  2. Conventional Morality

    • Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity (moral reasoning based on gaining approval from others).

    • Stage 4: Authority and Social Order Maintenance (moral reasoning based on maintaining law and order).

  3. Postconventional Morality

    • Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation (understanding that laws are social contracts that can be changed).

    • Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles (moral reasoning based on abstract principles of justice).

Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles

Mary Ainsworth identified four types of attachment in children:

  1. Secure Attachment: Children feel safe exploring and are distressed when separated from caregivers, but are easily comforted upon return.

  2. Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Children avoid caregivers and do not seek comfort from them.

  3. Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment: Children are clingy and resistant to exploring, showing distress when caregivers leave but not easily comforted upon return.

  4. Disorganized Attachment: Children show inconsistent behavior, such as approaching and avoiding caregivers simultaneously.

Adolescent Development

  • Puberty: Biological changes leading to sexual maturity (e.g., growth spurt, development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics).

  • Physical Changes: Increased body growth, changes in voice, and reproductive system development.

  • Social Changes: Increased independence, peer relationships become more important.

  • Identity Categories: Identity formation through exploration (e.g., ethnic, gender, career).

  • Brain Changes: Development of the prefrontal cortex (responsible for decision-making and impulse control), while the limbic system (emotional processing) matures earlier.

Physical Development: Adolescence and Adulthood

  • Adolescence: Rapid physical growth, hormonal changes, increased muscle mass, body fat redistribution.

  • Adulthood: Physical peak around 20-30 years; gradual decline in muscle strength, bone density, metabolism after 30; menopause for women around 50.

Gender Differences

  • Communication Styles: Women tend to be more expressive and empathetic; men may focus more on problem-solving.

  • Friendships: Women form close, emotionally supportive friendships; men often form activity-based friendships.

  • Risky Behavior: Males tend to engage in higher levels of risky behaviors (e.g., substance use, reckless driving).

Emerging Adulthood (18-25 years)

  • Characteristics: Period of exploration and instability; not yet fully settled into adult roles (e.g., career, relationships, living arrangements).

Memory Types

  1. Semantic Memory: Facts and general knowledge.

  2. Explicit Memory: Conscious recollection of facts and events.

  3. Implicit Memory: Unconscious memory, like skills or habits.

  4. Working Memory: Active maintenance of information for short-term use.

  5. Source Memory: Remembering the origin of a memory.

  6. Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform a future action.

  7. Perceptual Speed: Speed at which an individual can process visual information.

Attention Types

  1. Divided Attention: Ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously.

  2. Selective Attention: Focusing on one task while ignoring distractions.

  3. Sustained Attention: Ability to focus on a task over an extended period.

Processing Speed

  • Processing speed refers to the pace at which the brain can process information; it slows down with age, particularly in later adulthood.

Crystallized vs. Fluid Intelligence

  • Crystallized Intelligence: Knowledge accumulated over time (increases with age).

  • Fluid Intelligence: Ability to reason and solve novel problems (declines with age).

Changes in Sensory Abilities with Age

  • Sensory decline is common in older adults, including hearing loss (especially high frequencies), decreased vision (particularly in low light), and slower taste/smell.

Mental Health Problems in Older Adulthood

  • Depression, anxiety, and cognitive disorders like dementia (Alzheimer’s) are more common in older adults. Age-related changes in the brain can contribute to these issues.

Impact of Religion in Older Adulthood

  • Many older adults turn to religion for comfort, meaning, and social support, which can help improve psychological well-being and reduce stress.

Kubler-Ross’ Stages of Grief

  1. Denial: Refusing to accept the reality of loss.

  2. Anger: Frustration and resentment toward the situation or others.

  3. Bargaining: Trying to make deals to reverse the situation.

  4. Depression: Feeling hopeless and sad over the loss.

  5. Acceptance: Coming to terms with the reality of the loss.

Life Expectancy

  • The average number of years a person can expect to live, influenced by factors like genetics, lifestyle, and access to healthcare. Life expectancy has been increasing globally due to advances in medicine and living conditions.