AP World
UNIT 1
Developments in East Asia (U1 T1)
Song Dynasty
China biggest power in the world
Carried a revival of Confucianism from the Tong Dynasty (Confucianism official philosophy back from Han Dynasty around 200 BCE)
Confucianism:
Taught human society is hierarchical by nature
Fathers > sons
Rulers > subjects
Husbands > wives
Greater entity should treat lesser ones with concern and benevolence
Smaller entities should respect greater entities and listen to them/not complain
Filial piety - honoring ones ancestors and parents
Worked to keep ancient Chinese society working
Once Han dynasty fell so did Confucianist ideas
Tang Dynasty - revival of Confucianism (neo-Confucianism)
Influence of Buddhist and Daoist ideas
Female subordination
Feet binding
Legal restrictions
Imperial Bureaucracy (governmental entity):
Civil service examination
Meant bureaucracy was staffed with only the most qualified men
Increased competency and efficiency of bureaucratic tasks
Cultural Influence
Tributary relationship with neighboring countries
Close relationship - lead to adoptions of cultural practices in Korea
Similar civil service exam
Adaptation of many Confucian principles
Went even further in marginalizing the role of women
Japan - Japan able to adopt cultural traits voluntarily due to geographic distance
Imperial bureaucracy
Buddhism
Vietnam - independent politically
Adopted Confucianism, Buddhism, Chinese literary techniques, and the civil service exam
Women not nearly as marginalized
Buddhism in Song China
Originated in South Asia
Four Noble Truths
Life is suffering
We suffer because we crave
We cease suffering when we cease craving
The eightfold path leads to the cessation of suffering and craving
Eightfold Path
Outlines the principles and practices that a Buddhist must follow
Moral lifestyle and practice of meditation
Theravada Buddhism (Sri Lanka)
Only available to a select few
Mahayana Buddhism
Emphasized that Buddhist teachings were available to all, not just a select few
Emphasized compassion
Made the Buddha into an object of devotion
Tibetan Buddhism
Same basic doctrines with a few additions
Emphasized more mystical practices
Lying prostrate
Elaborate imaginings of deity
Although Song Dynasty made it their policy to emphasize more traditional Chinese ideas like Confucianism, Buddhism continued to play a significant role in their society
Chan Buddhism
Chinese form of Buddhism
Song Economy
Commercialization of the Economy
Sold excess on world market
Paper money
Credit/promissory notes
Iron and Steel Production
By 11th century both large scale manufacturers and home based artisans were producing enough iron and steel to create all the suits of armor needed for war, all the coins needed for trade and taxation, and money of the tools needed for agriculture
Agricultural Innovation
Champa Rice
Drought Resistant
Harvestable Twice a Year
Led to a population explosion
Transportation Innovation
Grand Canal
Cheaper trade between regions
Magnetic Compass
Improved navigation on the water
Further facilitated sea based trade among various regions
New Shipbuilding Techniques
Junks - made navigation more accurate, more trade
DAR-AL-ISLAM (U1 T2)
Three major religions:
Judaism
Ethnic religion of the Jews
Monotheistic
Base of the other monotheistic religions
Christianity
Established by Jesus Christ
Eventual adoption by Roman Empire
Islam
Founded by the prophet Muhammed
Taught salvation would be found in righteous actions like almsgiving, prayer, and fasting
Began spreading rapidly after his death - established Dar-al-Islam (House of Islam)
Abbasid Caliphate
Founded in 8th century
Ethnically Arab
In power during Golden Age of Islam
By 1200 Empire was fragmenting and losing power
Several new empires start to arise - new Islamic empires largely made of Turkic peoples, NOT Arab peoples
Turkic Muslim Empires
Seljuk Empire
Central Asia
Pastoral people
In the end the Abbasid caliphs were still in power but Seljuks had most of the political power
Mamluk Sultanate
Egypt
Mamluks seized power giving rise to another Turkic Muslim state
Delhi Sultanate
South Asia
Ruled over Indian population for about 300 years
Continuity in Muslim Empires
Military in Charge of Administration
Implemented Sharia Law
A code of laws established in the Quran
Continued Expansion
Military Expansion
Delhi Sultanate
Merchant Activity
Trade
Muslim Missionaries
Sufis
Sufism - new and emerging form of Islam that emphasized mystical experience
Significant force for the spread of Islam
Intellectual Innovations and Transfers
Mathematics
Trigonometry
House of Wisdom
Established in Baghdad
Scholars from all over met to discuss religion and the natural sciences
Scholars at the house of wisdom responsible for preserving works of Greek moral and natural philosophy
State Building in SOUTH Asia and SOUTHEAST Asia (U1 T3)
Belief Systems
Hinduism
India
Polytheistic belief system
Ultimate goal of believers is to reunite their individual souls to the all pervasive world soul known as Brahman
Takes cycles of death and rebirth
Provided the conditions for a unified culture in India - caste system
Islam
Delhi Sultanate in India
Religion of the elite
Buddhism
South Asia
Founded in India
Carries over cycle of birth and death and reincarnation from Hinduism
Ultimate goal of dissolving into the oneness of the universe
Reject caste system and emphasize equality
Universalizing religion (more likely to spread)
Belief System Change
Hinduism
Bhakti Movement
Encouraged believers to worship one particular god in the Hindu pantheon
Rejected hierarchy of Hinduism
Encouraged spiritual experiences
Islam
Sufism
More mystical and spiritual experience-based version of Islam
Buddhism
By 1200 Buddhism was more and more exclusive (on the decline)
State Building in South Asia
Islam a minority religion in Delhi
Rival Hindu kingdoms, along with previous population already being too Hindu
Sea-Based States in Southeast Asia
Srivijaya Empire (7-11th century)
Control of Strait of Malacca
Taxes of ships passing through
Majapahit Empire
Tributary system
Land-Based States in Southeast Asia
Sinhala Dynasties
Buddhist state
Khmer Empire
Exceedingly prosperous state
Built Angkor Wat
Later converted to Buddhism
STATE-BUILDING IN THE AMERICAS (U1 T4)
Mesoamerican Civilizations
Maya Civilization (200-900 CE)
Huge urban system
Sophisticated writing system
Decentralized collection of city states frequently at war with one another
Fought to create a vast network of tributary states among neighboring regions
Emphasis on human sacrifice
Aztec Empire (shows continuity and change) - 1345 to 1528
Mexica - semi nomadic, established Aztec empire
Decentralized power
Tributary system
Religious motivation for expansion (human sacrifice)
Claimed heritage from older, more renounced Mesoamerica people
Tenochtitlan - major city
Palaces and pyramids
Andean Civilizations
Wari Civilization (collapses around 1000CE)
Inca emerge from Wari
Outsiders rose to power via military prowess, rapid expansion
Centralized power
Massive bureaucracy
Mit’a System
Required labor of all people for a period of time each year to work on state projects
North American Civilizations
Mississippian Culture
Political structure dominated by powerful chiefs with ruled each town and extended political power
Hierarchical society
Chaco + Mesa Verde
Dry land
Massive structures
Housing complex on the side of cliffs using sandstone
STATE BUILDING IN AFRICA (U1 T5)
State Building in Sub-Saharan Africa
Swahili Civilization
Collection of independent city states
Rose to prominence due to strategic location on the coat (Indian Ocean trade)
Focused on trade and imported goods from farmers and pastoralists
Islam became a dominant belief system
Thrived on merchants/trade, Muslims were the biggest/main merchants
Conversion among the Swahili elite took place voluntarily
Connected to Dar-al-Islam
Great Zimbabwe
Participation in Indian Ocean trade
Control of ports
Rulers constructed massive capital city
State Building in West and East Africa
Hausa Kingdoms
Collection of city states that were politically independent and gained power and wealth through trade across the trans Saharan trade network
Adoption of Islam to organize societies and facilitate trade with the larger network in Dar-al-Islam
Ethiopia
Christian state
Massive stone churches
Grew wealthy through trade
Salt one of their most valuable commodities
Centralized power
King sat at top
Stratified class hierarchy below the king
DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE (U1 T6)
Christianity Dominates Europe
Christianity becomes official religion due to Constantine
United Romans
476 CE - Roman empire falls but eastern Byzantine empire keeps the faith and survives
Eastern Orthodox Christianity
Broke apart politically
Roman Catholic Christianity
Ottoman empire sacked Constantinople in 1453, named Istanbul after
End of Byzantine empire
Kievan Rus - became main embodiment of Orthodox Christianity after fall of byzantine
Crusades
Connected Europeans to larger trade networks
While Christianity was the dominant belief system, Islam and Judaism held important minority positions
Political Decentralization in the West
No large empires in Europe
Western Europe - social, political, and economic order organized around a system known as feudalism
System of allegiances between powerful lords, monarchs, and knights
Greater lords and kings gained allegiance from lesser lords and kings
Land exchanged in order to keep everyone loyal
Manorialism - peasants bound to land and worked it in exchange for protection from the lord and his military forces
Peasants known as serfs (bound to the land)
Around 1200: monarchs in various states began to gain power and centralize their states by introducing large militaries and bureaucracies
UNIT 2 (1200-1450) - NETWORKS OF EXCHANGE
Cultural Diffusion
Geographical range of all these networks expanded
Range of these networks expanded due to innovations in commercial practices and technological innovations
Increased connectivity between all these places caused various states to grow wealthy and powerful due to their participation in these networks
Increased interconnectivity caused the rise of powerful trading cities while also causing the collapse of other cities
The Silk Roads
Luxury goods trading network that stretched across Eurasia
Chinese silk and porcelain
Increase demand caused an increase in production of these goods by Chinese, Indian, and Persian artists
Innovations facilitated the expansion of these networks
Caravanserai - series of ins and guest houses along the Silk Road (also provided safety)
Brought merchants from all different cultures and backgrounds together creating the occasion for significant transfers (cultural/technological)
Innovations of commercial practices
Money economies - uses paper money to facilitate exchange, unlike a barter economy which uses goods as currency
Introduction of credit - creation of banking houses (somewhat like a check)
Increase in trade led to the rise of powerful trading cities that grew and flourishes precisely because they were located along these routes
Kashgar - grew in power and wealth
The Indian Ocean Network (Maritime)
A thorough understanding of monsoon winds made trade possible
Large bulk of what was traded along these routes included more common goods like textiles and spices
Magnetic Compass
Helped merchants know which direction to sail in
Astrolabe
Tool for measuring the stars and then comparing them to star charts which helped reckon latitude and longitude
New Ship Designs
Chinese “junk”
Diasporic Communities
A settlement of ethic people in a location other than their homeland
New Languages Emerge
Zheng He - Sent by Ming Dynasty to go throughout the Indian Ocean enrolling States in China’s tributary system
Trans-Saharan Trade Network
Expanded during this time period
Camel Saddle
Transporting larger loads of cargo
Empire of Mali
Conversion of leadership to Islam
Grew rich through trade of gold and taxing of merchants
Mansa Musa
Consequences of Connectivity
Cultural:
Transfer of religion or belief systems
Buddhism - entered to China through Silk Road
Literary and artistic transfers
Islamic scholars in the house of wisdom translated Greek and Roman classics into Arabic, and made extensive commentaries on works
Basis for the renaissance
Scientific and technological innovations
Gunpowder - Originated in China, eventually spread to Muslim empires and then to Eastern Europe
Rise and fall of cities
Hangzhou
Increasingly wealthy and urbanized
Baghdad
Destroyed in 1258 by Mongols
Travelers wrote about their experiences
Ibn Battuta
Young Muslim scholar from Morocco
Traveled all over Dar-al-Islam over the course of 30 years
Took detailed notes about places, people, rulers, and cultures
Environmental:
Transfer of crops
Champa rice
Transfer of disease
Bubonic plague - first erupted in China (carries by rats and fleas)
The Mongol Empire
Established largest land-based empire of all time
By 2nd half of 14th century Mongols ruled a huge chunk of land through Khanates
Networks of exchange increased significantly
Silk Roads flourished the most when large empires controlled the routes because they could provide safety and continuity along them
Facilitated an unprecedented increase in communication and cooperation (Pax Mongolica)
Facilitated technological and cultural transfers
Created conditions for transfer of Greek and Islamic medical knowledge to Western Europe
Adoption of the Uyghur script
UNIT 3 (1450-1750) - LAND BASED EMPIRES
Land Based Empire
An empire whose power comes from the extent of its territorial holdings
Land based empires were expanding
Ottoman Empire - Sunni
Gunpowder Weapons
Allowed for control of Southwestern Europe
Conquering of Constantinople and renaming to Istanbul
Continued to expand to Eastern Europe
Christian boys turned into Janissaries and converted to Islam
Safavid Empire - Shia
Raided and conquered neighboring territory (gunpowder)
Shah Abbas - built up empire with adoption of gunpowder weapons
Enslaved army (Christian from conquered regions)
Sunni
Believed that the rightful successor of Muhamad could be anyone spiritually fit for the office
Shi’a
Believed that only blood relatives of Muhammad were his legitimate successors
Mughal Empire - Sunni
1526 - Babur rose to leadership and wiped off Delhi Sultanate
Babur’s grandson Akbar - expanded empire further
Tolerant of all kinds of belief systems
Most prosperous empire
Qing Dynasty (Manchu Empire)
Ming (Han/ethnically Chinese) Dynasty taken over by outsiders (Manchu) setting up the new dynasty
Led conquests of expansion using gunpowder weapons
Rivalries Between Empires
Safavid vs. Mughal
Territorial dispute
Religious element (Shi’a vs. Sunni)
The Administration of Empires
Legitimization
The methods a ruler uses to establish their authority
Consolidation
The methods a ruler uses to transfer power form other groups to themselves
Formation of large bureaucracies
Devshirme System
Ottomans used this system to staff their bureaucracy with highly trained individuals
Top performers were appointed to elite positions in the Ottoman bureaucracy
Development of military professionals
Religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture
Diving right of kings - the idea that monarchs were God’s representative on Earth
Sun temple in Inca
Palace of Versailles
Innovations on tax collection systems
Zamindar system by Mughal empire
Elite landowners who were granted authority to tax peasants living on their land on behalf of the imperial government
Tax farming by Ottomans
The right to tax subjects of the empire was awarded to the highest bidder
Tribute lists utilized by Aztec rulers
Belief Systems in Empires
Roman Catholic Church located in Rome
Plagued with corruption
Sale of indulgences
Martin Luther
Troubled with the Catholic church
Created list of complaints known as 95 theses
Printing press allowed for spread of his ideas
Protestant Reformation
Catholic continued as a dominant expression of Christianity
Council of Trent - Catholics cleaned up a lot of the corruption protestants were complaining about
Church reaffirmed Catholic doctrine of salvation
Split between Protestants
Islam
Shah Ismail declared Safavid empire would adhere to Shi’a Islam
Created tensions/conflicts with other Sunni Muslim empires in the area
Intensified split between the 2 branches
Sikhism
Syncretic blend of Hindu and Islamic doctrines
Retained belief in one God and the cycle of reincarnation and death
Discarded the gender hierarchies of Islam
Discarded the cast system of Hinduism
UNIT 4 (1450-1750) - MARTIME EMPIRES
Causes of Exploration
Adoption and Innovation of Maritime Technologies
Europeans gain technologies from the Classical Greek, Islamic, and Asian worlds
Portuguese caravel
Much smaller, with better navigation and speed
Improved understanding of wind patterns
Growth of State Power
Monarchs growing in power (more significant role)
Interregional trade was limited due to land based empires taking over trade routes, leading to big incentives to find other routes, namely sea-based routes
Economic
Mercantilism
A state-driven economic system that characterized imperial European states during this period
Led to favorable balance of trade where states organized their economies around exports and avoided imports as much as possible
Colonies existed only to enrich their imperial parents
Joint-Stock Company
Limited liability business, often charted by the state, which was funded by a group of private investors
Dutch East Indian company (VOC) - Dutch dominated the Indian Ocean
Establishing Maritime Empires
Portugal
Prince Henry The Navigator
Interest initially in gold trade in Africa, but by 1440s were looking to enter the Indian Ocean
Established a trading post empire
Set up trading posts to control trade throughout the region
Spain
Crown sponsored Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic to find a new route to Asia
Finds 2 new massive continents
Voyages started to establish claim to a vast world of colonization
Opens Trans-Atlantic Trade
Set up colonies over the Philippines
France
First to sponsor westward expeditions in order to find a North Atlantic sea route
Established a presence in Canada giving access to lucrative fur trade
England
Sponsored expeditions to the Americas
Roanoke Island and Jamestown colonies
Established trading posts in India
Dutch
Gained independence from Spain
Challenged Spanish and Portuguese control over the Indian Ocean trade and came out on top
The Columbian Exchange
The transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western hemispheres (environmental)
Disease
Europeans introduced smallpox and measles to the Americas - incredibly deadly
Malaria - indigenous populations devastated
Food and Plants
Greatly affected populations both in the New World and the Old World
Europeans introduced olives, rice, wheat, sugar, grapes, and bananas into the Americas
Americas introduced maize and potatoes
Resulted in population explosion
Plantations introduced in Americas, mainly for cash cropping
Animals
Europeans introduced pigs, sheep, and cattle to the Americas
Horses were introduced - most important
Resistance to Imperial Expansion
Resistance from some Asian states against the intrusion of western powers in the Indian Ocean
Tokugawa Japan
Shogun used brutality and violence to get rid of Christian missionaries
Resistance on the local level in European states themselves
The Fronde - series of rebellions against the monarchy (eventually crushed)
Resistance from the enslaved
Maroon societies - colonies in the Americas
Effect: Expansion of African States
Maritime trading networks fostered growth of some African states who participated in them
Asante Empire
Provided resources making them an powerful/rich empire
Kingdom of the Kongo
Converted to Christianity
Change and Continuity in Networks of Exchange
Indian Ocean Network
Change:
Entrance and massive power grabs of European states into this network
Continuity:
Middle Eastern, South Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian merchants continued to use Indian Ocean Network
Despite European dominance on the sea, overland routes were still almost entirely controlled by Asian land-based powers
Atlantic System
Opening of the Atlantic System
Sugar
Silver
Used to purchase luxury goods from China
Further developed the commercialization of China’s economy
Coerced Labor
Changes in Labor Systems
Mit’a System - developed and deployed by the Inca Empire
Used by Spanish for silver mining
Chattel Slavery
Slavery in which purchaser has total ownership over enslaved person
Race-based and hereditary
Significant gender imbalance
Changing family structures
Cultural synthesis - emergence of creole languages
Indentured Servitude - used in British colonies
Encomienda System
Used by Spanish to divide indigenous Americans among Spanish settlers
Americans forced to provide labor for Spanish in exchange for food and protection
Hacienda
Indigenous laborers forced to work on large plantations known as haciendas
Effects: Changing Belief Systems
Catholic missionaries sent around the globe (Jesuits)
In some cases indigenous groups outwardly adopted Christianity but privately continued to practice their own religious beliefs
Met with violence
Led to religious syncretism
Vodun - African + Christian
Effects: Changing Social Hierarchies
Ethnic and Religious Diversity
Jews migrated more towards Ottoman Empire (religious tolerance vs. Europe)
Rise of New Political Elites
Spanish social hierarchy known as the casta system
Organized colonial society into a series of ranks based on race and ancestry
Transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty in China
The Struggles of Existing Elites
Decreasing power for nobility with an increasing monarch
Russian boyars made up the aristocratic land owning class in Russia
Peter the Great - took power away from boyars creating conflict
UNIT 5 (1750-1900) - THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Industrial Revolution
The transformation of the world from agrarian and handcrafted economies, to economies and societies built around industry and machine manufacturing
Fundamentally changed the way people produced and consumed goods
Factory
Spinning Jenny
Faster textile production
Water frame
Allowed for mechanization of the spinning jenny
Steam engine
No longer needs water to power machines
Interchangeable parts
Can repair parts much easily by changing out only broken parts
Workers only need to produce a single part
Assembly line
Rise of unskilled workers
Huge production scale
Lower consumer prices
Abandonment of Mercantilism - gave way to capitalism
The wealth of nations
Book that argued against mercantilism
Advocated for laissez faire economics
No finite amount of wealth in the world
Began in England
Access to raw materials
Abundant waterways
Spread to other parts of the world
Social Changes due to Industrialization
New Class Structure
Working class
Middle class (white collar)
Factory owners (bourgeoisie)
Horrible working conditions for the working class
Bad working conditions
Difficult work
Long hours
Minimal pay
Women paid far less
Led to Labor Unions
Joining of the working class
Led to major reforms
Fair minimum wage
Limited working hours
Marx
Led to the Communist Manifesto
Saw that the industrial society was split between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
Advocated for the proletariat to own the means of production
Meant violent and bloody revolution
Political Changes
Enlightenment
Intellectual movement in the 17th-18th centuries in Europe that emphasized reason and individualism at the expense of tradition
John Locke - endowment of natural rights
Power to govern are in the hands of the people, who give that power to the government so that the government may protect their rights
Voting Rights (Franchise)
Political rights extended voting rights to non-land owners and the working class (mostly men)
Revolutions
1776 - US revolution against the British (won independence)
France inspired: led to revolution of their own, beheaded the king and established a republic
Haiti - slave revolt against the France (most successful slave revolt in history)
UNIT 6 (1750-1900) - IMPERIAL EXPANSION
Consequences of the Industrial Revolution
Migration/Urbanization
Growing power of the industrialized
Colonial expansion (Imperialism)
Europeans believed in the cultural superiority (white race)
White man’s burden - duty of the white man to civilize non whites
Social Darwinism - strong races/richer are better naturally
Nationalism - strong common identity and pride in their nation
Economic incentives
Provided huge amounts of raw materials
Africa (colonization)
Scramble for Africa
More and more territories claimed by imperialist leading to bitter rivalries by industrial powers
Berlin conference - peaceful decision to split up Africa for territory/claim
Asia (colonization)
British East India company started claiming more and more territory until they controlled all of India
Dutch also took over South Asia (except Japan)
Meiji Restoration (Japan)
Western industrialization techniques adopted by Japan to defend from encroaching European powers
China - forced to trade with European powers
Opium wars
Addictive drug sold to China even after the government forbade it, leading to the conflict
British won and China forced to sign power over to British
Resistance to Colonialism
Balkans
Rose up against Ottoman rule
Serbia and Greece established as nations
Cherokee
Forced removal on the trail of tears
Led to bloody conflict
Global Economic Development
Urbanization
Movement of subsistence farming to cash crop farming
Colonized countries forced to farm for materials to export to imperialist nations
Cotton, rubber, palm oil
Increasing interconnected global economy
Narrowing and weaking of colonial economies
Migrations
Large migrations due to work - indentured servitude
Bad living conditions in countries
Potato famine in Ireland
Brought cultures into other countries
Nativist backlash to immigrants
Competition for workers
UNIT 7 (1900-PRESENT) - GLOBAL CONFLICT
Shifting of state power
By the end of the century many maritime and land-based empires would fall apart and give rise to new states
Ottoman Empire
Young Ottomans
Western educated
Called for massive political change
Young Turks
Called for a complete modernization of the Ottoman Empire
Viewed the state as Turkic
Ottoman Reforms
Secularization of schools and law codes
Establishment of political elections
Imposition of Turkish language
Ended up alienating minorities
Further fractured the empire
Russian Empire
Middle class started to demand more of a voice
Working class developed many grievances
Led to the Russian Revolution (1905)
Was killed off by the tsar
Did fulfill some demands such as a constitution, labor unions, and political parties (largely ignored)
Led to the Russian Revolution of 1917 led by Marxist Lenin
Successful
Seized power
Established a communist state
Qing China
Taiping Rebellion
Put down by Qing authorities
Cost millions of lives
Loss of Opium Wars
Loss of Sino-Japanese War
China was no match
Boxer Rebellion
Aided by Western powers
Led to more demands by these powers for their own benefit
Led to the end of imperial rule in China
New government established (short lived)
Emerged as a communist state eventually
The Mexican Revolution
Ruled by a dictator
Hated by every social class
Madero elected, eventually assassinated
By 1917 revolution, Mexico emerged as a republic with a newly drafted Constitution which enacted widespread reforms
Male suffrage
Minimum wages
Decoupling of Catholic Church from economic/political power
Causes of WWI
Militarism - states should build militaries and use them aggressively for their own benefit
Germany built up a massive army and possessed the most powerful military force in Europe
International Alliances
Created on both sides for the interest of national security
Devised military mobilization planning
Imperialism and its Effects
Most potent cause for imperialism - desire to project power on the world stage
Conflict between nations on colonial holdings
Nationalism
Defined other nations as enemies
Convinced many that their national identities were under threat
Assassination
Serbian nationalist shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austro-Hungarian empire
Austrians demanded retaliation
Serbia allied with Russia who was also allied with Britain and France whilst Austro-Hungary was allied with Germany who was also allied with Italy
How WWI Was Fought
First Total War
A war which requires the mobilization of a country’s entire population, both military and civilian, in order to fight
Usage of propaganda
Intensified version of nationalism
New military technologies made WWI one of the deadliest wars
Trench Warfare
Each side dug miles of trenches - huge scale of trench warfare
Years of stalemate
Colonial troops drafted to fight the war
Colonial troops did not want to fight
Fought in hopes of gaining independence or a greater degree of self rule
Sinking of the Lithuania + incitement of Mexico by Germany to try to distract the US:
Drags US into the war
Tide turns against Germany
Treaty of Versailles - major reparations and punishments for Germany (lots of blame)
The Global Economy Between the World War
Germany
Debt from the war + reparations
Hyperinflation
No war payments to Britain and France no payments to US
Colonial governments also suffered economic losses
Soviet Union
New economic policy from Lenin
Introduced some limited free market principles
Biggest institutions still under state control
Joseph Stalin assumes power
Strong armed state bent on brutality
Collectivization of agriculture - merging small privately owned farms into large collective farms owned by the state
Led to famine of other areas
Great Depression
Caused by stock market crash
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Introduced the New Deal
Government put people to work on infrastructure projects
Introduced a government sponsored retirement program
Created government medical insurance
WWII breaks out and eventually solves economic issues
Unresolved Tensions after WWI
Imperial powers maintained colonial holdings
Mandate System
Middle Eastern territories would become mandates administered by the League of Nations
Division into Classes A, B, and C to determine if the population was sufficient for self rule
Did not play out properly
Japan Expands
1932 - Japan invades Manchuria
Continued to take over other countries
Indian National Congress
Formed before war in late 19th century
Formally petitioning the British government
African National Congress
Dedicated to obtaining equal rights for colonial subjects in South Africa
The Causes of WWII
Italy
Bitter because they did not receive promised land grants
Germany
Required reparations from Germany
Forced demilitarization, leaving them vulnerable
Forced to accept entire blame for the war
Continued Imperialism
Adolf Hitler takes about Rhineland (buffer zone between France)
More space taken for lebensraum (living space)
Appeasement gave Hitler confidence
Rise of Fascism and totalitarianism
A political philosophy characterized by extreme nationalism, authoritarian leadership, and militaristic means to achieve its goals
Stalin aimed for the whole world to be communist - gave Western powers unease
Benito Mussolini rises to power in Italy making it a fascist state
Nazi party arising from Germany led by Adolf Hitler
Defined enemies as socialists, communists, and jews
Hitler’s policies
Cancel reparation payments
Remilitarize Germany
Territorial expansion
Eliminate “unpure” races
How WWII Was Fought
Bigger and more devastating than WWI
Most immediate cause - Hitler’s invasion of Poland for lebensraum
2 Alliance systems
Axis powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan
Allied powers: Britain, France, US, USSR
Pearl Harbor
Japan bombs US Naval Base in 1941 leading to full scale war commitment by the US
Mobilization of the War
WWII propaganda
3 ideologies
Fascism
Communism
Democracy
Repression of freedoms
Japanese internment in the US
Jews forced into ghettos in Germany, and later into concentration camps
Strategies and Technologies
Blitzkrieg
A shock and awe strategy that aimed to eliminate the enemy with incredible speed
Combined air assault and infantry movement
Firebombing - small clusters of explosives to create fires
Atomic Bomb
2 dropped by US on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Resulted in surrender of Japan
Mass Atrocities in the 20th Century
Causes of Mass Atrocities
2 World Wars
Around 120 million deaths
50% civilian deaths
New Technologies
Aerial warfare
Rise of extreme political ideologies
Armenian Genocide
Mass extermination of Armenians along with forcible relocation
The Holocaust
Extermination of Jewish population
Cambodian Genocide
Pol Pot rose to power
Emptied cities and forced people to work in labor camps
Targeted the educated population
Quarter of the population killed
UNIT 8 (1945-1980) - THE COLD WAR AND DECOLONIZATION
The Cold War
Cold War - a conflict between 2 belligerent nations in which neither engages in open warfare with the other
Start of the Cold War
Harry Truman - In power when the cold war begins
US and USSR emerge as the 2 superpowers after WWII
US not riddled with destruction as war was fought in the East
Clash between 2 dominant organizing ideologies of the two nations
Central European countries taken in charge by USSR as a “buffer zone”, and end up becoming communist rather than holding free elections
Soviet economy:
Natural resources
Large population
Investment (infrastructure) before WWII
Postwar handling of Germany - 4 occupation zones
Eastern section quickly became dominated by the soviets and became communist
Soviet sought to keep Germany weak whilst the Western powers sought to help Germany recover to keep a stable Europe
Containment
Truman takes measures to contain the spread of communism - Truman Doctrine
US provides military and economic support to any nation under the threat of communism
Marshall Plan
Extensive economic aid plan to help European nations rebuild and revive their economy
Reasoning: if nations have a healthy economy, they should opt for democracy instead of communism
12 billion dollars approved for the plan
Plan was successful
Formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Created for the defense of Western Europe
Caused buildup of American military across the world
Warsaw Pact
Similar form alliance for the communist nations
Arms Race
Race between US and USSR to develop superior weapon systems
Quickly became apparent that if ether side launched one of these weapons (nuclear/hydrogen bombs), it would provoke retaliation resulting in mutual assured destruction
Korean War
Korea formerly a colony of Japan
Soviet occupied North, US occupied South
North invades the South, and this becomes a proxy war
Ends in a stalemate along the same line where they started
Massive collateral damage against civilians
Developments in the US
Red Scare
Fear among Americans that communist spies had infiltrated American society at every level
Unamerican Activities Committee
Committee that searched for communist influence within the entire nation
GI BILL - veterans received low interest loans and free education
Baby boom - post war explosion of babies being born within the US
Spike in migration - movement to the sun belt (south and west)
Decolonization
Many colonies simply changed hands to the victories powers WWI
Colonial troops fought for imperial parents’ cause again in WWII
No clear intentions of the imperial countries to grant independence to their colonies, leading to massive anti-imperial movements across the world
Britain, France, and the rest had almost no resources to resist these movements
As the process of decolonization was created dozens of brand new states across the world, the US and USSR raced to influence each of these new states with their ideologies
Non-Aligned Movement
Represented an alternative to the existing economic political and social orders created by the Cold War rivalry
Consisting of 29 new states
Communism in China
Bitter conflict between the Chinese Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party
1931 - Japan invaded China (Before WWII)
Collectivization of agriculture
Relatively peaceful process
Communist party had already built up trust with peasants during the civil war period
New version of communism under Madong’s rule
Small scale industrialization
Led to starvation of 20-50 million people
Refused aid from foreign nations
Other Socialist/Communist Movements
Egypt
Gains independence
Implementation of socialist reforms for Egypt’s land resources
Control of Suez canal under Egypt alone
British, French, and Israeli forces invaded Egypt
Nuclear pressure eventually leads to withdrawal of the nations
Vietnam
Gains independence after Japan is defeated in WWII
Communist and anti-communist government established
Proxy war occurs in Vietnam
Cuba
Led by Fidel Castro
Attempted to purge Cuba of dependence and subservience to the US
With support from USSR Castro launched a program of land distribution and raised wages
Nationalized the land the belonged to various US corporations
Failed US attempt to overthrow Castro
Negotiated Independence and Decolonization
India
Britain’s most prosperous and valuable colony
Growing and educated middle class
Violent resistance after WWII due to lack of freedom/independence
Gandhi - nonviolent resistance
Establishment of the new independent state was fraught with incredible violence
Muslim minority
Led to split between India and Pakistan
Led to death and conflict
Africa
Gold coast
Negotiations after WWII led to the new state of Ghana (1957)
Angola
Violent protest against Portuguese
After independence the groups within Angola fell into a civil war
Colonies with a large population of European settlers resisting decolonization caused outbreaks of violence in the name of independence
Algeria was an example
Conflict in New States
Carelessness of imperial powers when drawing boundaries led to problems after these colonial states gained independence
Partition of India
Muslim League - led to partition between Hindus and Muslims
Kashmir - area of India fought between Pakistan and India for territorial claim
United Nations stepped in to mediate the dispute
Creation of Israel
Before WWI Palestine was part of the Ottoman empire
After Ottoman loss Palestine was transferred to Great Britain (mandate system)
Zionism - chief desire was to have a state of their own
United Nations declared Palestine would be partitioned into 2 states
Palestine rejected this notion
Took up arms and Israeli won the war, however this led to long lasting conflict
Migration to Metropoles
Metropoles
Designated the territory of the imperial country in distinction from their colonial holdings during the age of imperialism
Over the long history of colonialism, imperial states and their colonies developed both cultural and economic connections with one another
Transformed majority white and culturally homogenous societies into genuine multi-ethic societies
Nonviolence Resistance
Mohandas Gandhi
Promoted nonviolence and civil disobedience
Leader of Indian National Congress
Homespun movement - encouragement of boycotting of British textiles
Salt March - reaction against salt monopoly
Martin Luther King Jr.
Black Baptist minister in US
Took inspiration from Gandhi’s methods
Fought against American segregation laws
Civil Rights Movement
Montgomery Bus Boycott
Nelson Mandela
Started with promoting nonviolence but later changed tactics
Minority white rose to power in African leading to segregation
Nonviolent resistance
Sharpeville Massacre led to Mandela and other activists abandoning the nonviolent movement
Intensification of Conflict
Chile
Military coupe to overthrow govern
Augusto Pinochet assumed power and ruled over as a dictator, violently suppressing opposition
Uganda
Frequent violence targeting ethic groups and political enemies, and even some seemingly random groups whom Idi Amin deemed as enemies
Intensification of violence
Military Industrial Complex
Building of the military
Increased violence as it was economically profitable to produce and sell weapons
Terrorism
Osama bin Laden
9/11
Intensified US involvement in the Middle East
End of the Cold War
Technological and military advances by the US
Detente
Easing of tensions between the 2 countries
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)
Defense system from space to shoot down missiles
Never came to pass
Soviet’s economy could not keep up with the US’s military advancements
Troubles in Afghanistan
Soviets invaded Afghanistan in order to prop up Communist regimes
Afghanistan supported by US
Failed invasion by USSR
Gorbachev’s Policies
Economic Crises before Gorbachev
Limited foreign trade
Government control of agriculture stifled the industry
Soviet bloc continued to grow discontent with soviet oppression
Perestroika
Restructuring of the economy to address economic woes by reducing the level of central planning from the government
Glasnost
Dissent and criticism against government was now allowed
Ceased military intervention
USSR would no longer use military intervention in order to prop up communist governments
Eventually led to democratic reform movements erupting in Eastern Europe and other countries breaking free from soviet control
Berlin war also torn down leading to reunification of Germany
UNIT 9 (1900 - PRESENT) - GLOBALIZATION
Globalization (Technology)
The phenomenon by which trade and technology have created a politically, economically, and socially interconnected world
Shrinking geographical distance
Radio
Television
Cellular
Internet
Transportation technology
Air travel
Shipping containers
Energy Technology
Petroleum
Nuclear power
Medical Technology
Antibiotics
Increased spike of vaccines
Birth control
Agricultural Technology
Commercial farming
Green Revolution
Genetic modification
Created concerns for environmental harm
Spread of Disease
Wealthier nations with better healthcare has less disease
Malaria
Spread by infected mosquitos in warmer tropical regions
Tuberculosis
Airborne disease that severely affects the lungs and can be fatal
Epidemics and Pandemics
1918 Influenza (Spanish flu)
HIV/AIDS (1980s)
COVID 19
Effects of Globalization on the Environment
Deforestation
Urbanization
Farmland
Desertification - fertile to infertile land
Intense agricultural demands
Decline in air quality
Increase in competition for fresh water supply
Climate change
Economics in a Global Age
Neoliberalism
Economic emphasis on free market policies that include the lowering of trade barriers like tariffs, deregulation of industry, and the transfer of public sector industries to private parties
Ronald Reagan
Reduced government on the economy
Margaret Thatcher
Deregulation of businesses and reduction in income taxes in Britain
Global and Regional Economic Institutions
Knowledge Workers
Wealthier, developed countries became more characterized by knowledge workers whose main capital for work was their minds
Manufacturing
Increasingly located in developing countries where international businesses could save money by paying lower wages to foreign workers
World Trade Organization (WTO)
Exists to regulate trade on a global scale
Calls for Reform
Movements for Human Rights
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UN’s First World Conference on Women
Negritude Movement
Liberation Theology
Greater Access to Education and Politics
Reforms implemented in terms of education and politics to be more inclusive of gender, race, class, and religion
Women’s Suffrage
Civil Rights Act
Caste Reservation System
Protests Against Globalization
Environmentalism
Conservation movements
Greenpeace
Nonviolence protest tactics to raise awareness and advocate for environmental protection
World Fair Trade Organization
Effect of Globalization on Culture
Various cultures interacting at a far greater pace than before
Local culture influenced by global culture
Arts
Entertainment
Global Sports
Consumer culture - describes a lifestyle devoted to spending money on mass produced material goods
Resistance to Globalization after 1900
Positive Effects of Globalization
Economic globalization was responsible for the largest bout of economic growth in the history of the world
Global movements for human rights have been implemented on a massive scale
Negative Effects of Globalization
Bretton Woods System - landmark international monetary agreement among 44 Allied nations, establishing fixed exchange rates tied to the U.S. dollar, which was convertible to gold
Critics argue that the system carried out by the World Bank, the IMF, and the WTO marginalized populations in the global south for the economic benefit of the global north
Multinational corporations able to exploit laborers in developing nations
Resistance to Cultural Globalization
Local media sites created against global outlets
Institutions Developed in a Globalized World
The United Nations
Created right after WWII
Created for negotiations
NATO lacked authority for enforcement of its resolutions
UN created to prevent war and to facilitate cooperation between nations
General Assembly (1st body of the UN)
Includes representatives from all member nations
Body responsible for discussing and making policies for all member nations
Security Council (2nd body of the UN)
Responsible for keeping peace in a globalized world
Made of 5 permanent members
US
China
France
Russia
UK
10 rotating representatives among the various member nations
Has authority to send military peacekeepers to help stabilize violent situations and to impose economic sanctions on states that are creating the conditions for violence and war