What was the impact of the First World War and why did the Kaiser abdicate?

Impact of WW1

struggle for power in Germany after abdication, and political crises Oct-Nov 1918

Why was Germany defeated in WW1?

Germany’s failed to achieve rapid victory, 1914: German military strategy built on idea of quick victory, avoiding drawn-out conflict w/ Allies, by autumn of 1914 Schlieffen Plan had failed.
Schlieffen Plan = German strategy to avoid two-front war by winning Western Front before threat from Russia, aiming to defeat France within 6 weeks w/ German offensive on Northern France + Belgium
Stalemate: Germany forced to fight on East and West front, and balance military power = stalemate. Situation made difficult for Germany by Allies’ naval blockade, limiting import of supplies. German policy of unrestricted submarine warfare threatened Britain, but didn’t weaken it.
Strengths of the Allies: Britain and France = major colonial powers and could call on overseas empires for personnel, resources and supplies. Furthermore, from April 1917 Allies strengthened by USA’ entry into war mobilizing 2 million men.
Limitations of German war economy: Germany unprepared for costs of long war; effort made to increase war production BUT economy dislocated by disruption to finance and collapse of trade.
Failure of final offensive: Chance for Germany to escape military defeat came w/ imposition of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on Russia in March 1918, enabled Germany to launch final offensive on Western Front BUT unable to maintain momentum + Aug 1918 German troops retreated while allies collapsed (Austria, Turkey + Bulgaria)

Socio-economic effects of WW1

1914, majority of Germans supported war; no signs of morale/ unity breaking down until winter 1917.
Shortages, high prices and black market + bleak military situation affected public mood = increased social discontent.
Food and fuel shortages: Winter 1916-7 + failure of potato crop = ‘turnip winter’.
Civilian mortality: Deaths of starvation & hypothermia rose; 121,000 in 1916 to 293,000 in 1918 + no. of infant deaths increased by over 50% in course of war years
Influenza epidemic: 1918, Europe hit by ‘Spanish flu’ which killed between 20-40 million people, higher than casualties of WW1
Inflation: workers forced to work longer hours & wages fell below inflation rate. Average prices doubled in Germany 1914-8 but wages rose only 50-75%
Casualties: 2 mil Germans killed & 6 mil wounded, many disabled + traumatized
Increased Social Discontent: Anger against arms dealers – ‘sharks’ had made vast profits. Resentment grew in middle classes b/c social status lowered w/ income decline + opposition grew against political leaders who urged total war.

Moving Towards Armistice + Origins of ‘stab in the back’ myth

Sept 1918 clear to Ludendorff and German high command, Germany on brink of defeat → Allied armies not yet entered German territory, retreating on Western Front.
Germany’s allies negotiating peace terms; Ludendorff concluded Germany’s only hope to avoid humiliating surrender = asking for armistice.
US President Wilson’s Fourteen Points offered basis for peace settlement; Ludendorff understood Germany’s autocratic system was an obstacle → advocated partial democratization of political system in Germany to get better peace terms.
- Wanted Germany to be constitutional monarchy, Kaiser handed over political power to civilian govt. Aimed to est. more democratic govt. & maintain German monarchy.
Ludendorff’s political turnaround had 2 main aims:
i) To secure for Germany the best possible peace terms from the Allies – believed Allied leaders more sympathetic to democratic regime in Berlin
ii) To prevent the outbreak of political revolutionary disturbances
iii) Saw need to shift responsibility for Germany’s defeat away from military leadership and conservative forces which had dominated Imperial Germany e.g. landowners and army + instead intended to put responsibility and blame for the defeat on new leadership
Origins of the ‘stab in the back’ myth, important in history of Weimar Republic, the distorted view that the army hadn’t really lost WW1 and that unpatriotic groups (e.g. socialists and Jews had undermined it) = severely weakened Weimar democracy from start.
‘Stab in the back myth’ believed by right-wing sympathisers (e.g. Bavarian military attaché)
Oct. 1918: “On the domestic political situation one often hears opinion expressed that it is a good thing the left wing parties will have to incur the odium for peace. The storm of indignation of the people will fall on them. One hopes that then one can get back into the saddle and continue to govern according to old recipe”

Wilson’s 14 Points

Woodrow Wilson an idealist + 14 Points devised as means of dealing fairly with aftermath of war.
- e.g; return of Alsace-Lorraine to France = quite specific and punitive towards Germany
BUT also some general principles (e.g., establishment of League of Nations to monitor future disputes + self-determination, whereby diff. nations should rule themselves, together with general disarmament + Wilson’s determination to create lasting peace + prevent another war)

October Reforms

In Oct., following recommendations of Ludendorff, Kaiser began series of reforms, ending autocratic rule & turning Germany into parliamentary democracy.
i) appointed Prince Max von Baden as new Chancellor
Prince Max von Baden: member of royal house of Grand Duchy of Baden + former army officer. 1914 became President Von Baden of German Red Cross, worked to improve conditions for prisoners of war, humanitarian work earning him respect. Moderate conservative with democratic views
ii) Chancellor to be responsible to Reichstag (not Kaiser) + new govt. based on majority parties in Reichstag established, + SPD.
iii) Wilhelm gave up powers over army + navy → Armed forces under civil govt control (Reichstag)
Armistice negotiations with Allies opened.
Germany went from political reform to revolution = realization war was lost → shock of defeat after hardship + propaganda hardened opinions & October reforms couldn’t defuse situation

October Reforms – ‘A revolution from above?’

Reforms = major constitutional transformation in Germany BUT didn’t result from pop.pressure, nor b/c of pressure from main democratic parties in Reichstag.
Portrayed as ‘Revolution from above’ designed to save Germany from humiliation AND save Kaiser’s rule, not result of ‘revolution from below’ by population.
Hans-Ulrich Wehler (1985): Events of Oct. 1918 proof Germany had been controlled & manipulated by conservative traditional forces →“The conservative bastions of the monarchy and the Army were to be preserved as far as possible behind the façade of new arrangements intended to prevent the radical overthrow of the system and prove acceptable to the Allies”
Eberhard Kolb (1984): steps taken by military leaders coincided w/ pressure from Reichstag for political change. Evidence supporting = resolution passed on same day as Ludendorff’s recommendation of armistice, demanding ‘the creation of strong govt, supported by confidence of majority of Reichstag’. Furthermore Prince Max appointed only after consultation with majority parties in Reichstag.
- Changes can’t be ignored but on balance, wrong to read deep into actions → for years Reichstag showed no inclination to seize initiative, still applied in 1918. Reichstag suspended proceedings in 5 Oct and went into recess until 22 Oct and adjourned again until 9 Nov, so not actions of institution wishing to control events decisively.
So it seems October Reform was shaped ‘from above’ & Reichstag happy to go along w/ this AND WAS NOT a constitutional revolution.

Peace Note:

3 Oct. Prince Max wrote to Pres. Wilson asking for armistice. Took 3 weeksfor Wilson to reply, b/c he was suspicious German High Command using request of armistice to regroup + prepare new offensive.
Wilson replied, demanding Germany evacuate occupied territory, end submarine warfare + fully democratize political system
These terms effectively demanded German surrender + Kaiser’s abdication + so too much for Ludendorff to accept.
Ludendorff tried but failed to gather support for last ditch military effort to resist, whereupon he resigned + fled to Sweden.
Octoberreforms had failed to achieve his objectives

Impact on German People

Prince Max’s govt. asking for Armistice = shattering morale of German people + armed forces.
- Peace Note = admission Germany had lost war, 1st time German people learn truth abt hopeless military situation, undermined respect for Kaiser, military + political leaders.
Civilians who’d borne food shortages w/ no fortitude lacked restraint & soldiers/sailors lost respect for their officers.
Kaiser increasingly seen as obstacle to peace but resolutely refused to abdicate.
In Freidrichshafen Strike 22 Oct. 1918, workers shouted ‘The Kaiser is a scoundrel’ and ‘Up with the German Republic’.
28 Oct. 1918, Navy high command (futile act of resistance to humiliating peace) ordered ships from Wilhelmshaven to attack British ships in English channel BUT 2 cruisers refused to obey orders = Naval mutiny the beginning of much broader revolutionary movement.

November Revolution 1918

Mutiny = Unrest in navy spread to main German naval base at Kiel
3 Nov. 1918 sailors at Kiel mutinied against officers + took control of base; also Hamburg
Mutinies prompted by real fear among sailors that officers planning suicide attack on British fleet to restore honour of German navy – news of Kiel mutiny fanned flames of discontent to other ports of Bremen and Lubeck and soon seen throughout Germany.
4 Nov. 1918 – revolt spread to city and workers and soldiers’ councils established in major cities of Berlin, Cologne and Stuttgart, similar to Soviets in Russia during Russian Revolution of 1917.
Soviets: workers’ + soldiers’ councils established in Russian Rev. 1917, a.k.a. October revo. Russian Provisional Govt. removed + Bolsheviks, under Lenin’s influence, took control. Revolution announced @ 2nd Congress of Soviets, democracy existed parallel to Provisional Govt.
- Despite govt. attempts to meet mutineers’ demands; revolt spread to other German ports and cities.
6 Nov. 1918 – workers and soldiers’ councils springing up spontaneously all over Germany
Radical socialists didn’t lead revolts, but seemed to outsiders; Germany on verge of communist revolt like Russia.
- most council members, patriotic Germans + wanted Kaiser abdication + democratic republic established.
Bavarian republic proclaimed
Authority of military officers, govt. officials and police challenged = regime collapsed FAST
8 Nov. 1918 – republic proclaimed in Bavaria + the last member of the House of Wittelsbach, King Louis III (Bavarian monarchy) deposed.
- Socialist Kurt Eisner proclaimed Bavaria an independent democratic socialist republic. Historian William Carr: “this was the decisive moment in the German Revolution” led to establishment of all-German republic + that Prince Max had lost control
most important developments happening in Berlin.
Events in Berlin
9 Nov. 1918 – SPD called workers in Berlin to join general strike & force Kaiser abdication + threatened withdrawal support Prince Max’s govt. unless Kaiser abdicated within 24 hours.
- Max knew he couldn’t govern w/o SPD, when Kaiser refused, he took matters in own hands & released a press statement claiming Kaiser abdicated.
- Desperate move to keep control BUT had no constitutional authority to act this way
9 Nov. 1918 Prince Max resigned & gave position to Friedrich Ebert, leader of SPD = left-wing provisional coalition govt.
- ‘Provisional’ – short term until national election held to vote for National Assembly (parliament)
- ‘Coalition’ – combination of parties, SPD and USPD (German Independent Social Democratic Party)
Friedrich Ebert – became active in SPD and elected to Reichstag in 1912, 1913 became President of SPD. Led SPD into supporting German entry into WW1 + expelled anti-war faction from party in 1917. Became first Chancellor in new German Republic in Nov. 1918 and first President in 1919.
9 Nov. Phillip Scheidemann, leading figure in SPD, declared German Republic on Reichstag balcony + was first Chancellor of W.R. after first elections & resigned in protest to Treaty of Versailles terms.
- 1 hr later Germany also declared ‘soviet republic’ by Karl Liebknecht, statement crucial to shaping of German revo.
  ALL these events happened BEFORE Kaiser had abdicated!
9 Nov.General Groener told Kaiser army would no longer fight for him.
General Wilhelm Groener – came from Wurtenburg + long distinguished military career. During WW1 distinguished himself as efficient army administrator through work organizing deployment of troops and ensuring continuity of vital supplies, also served on Western + Eastern fronts. After dismissal of Ludendorff, (who fled to Sweden in Oct. 1918) Groener became Quartermaster General and Deputy Chief of General Staff.
Kaiser had lost control & had no choice but abdication; didn’t sign until it had been announced.

Abdication of Kaiser:

1.30pm on 9 Nov. 1918, in house adjacent to German Army headquarters in Spa, Belgium, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany was brought news his abdication was announced in Berlin; 5.p.m. he was forced to accept this.
Companions advised his only hope of safety was travelling into Holland, which remained neutral during WW1.
BUT Wilhelm uncertain what to do  his wife, Empress Dona, still in Berlin + so not until just before dawn on 10 Nov. that convoy of 10 cars, including Kaiser’s, with royal insignia removed, set off to Dutch border at Eysen.
Royal party kept waiting at Eysen for 6 hours while Dutch authorities decided what should happen to him, but eventually allowed to continue by special train.
Wilhelm to Dutch ambassador: “I am a broken man. How can I begin life again? My prospects are hopeless. I have nothing left to believe in”.
As Europe celebrated armistice on 11 Nov. 1918, Wilhelm sat down to ‘a good cup of English tea at his new residence”