Philosophy 2660 Midterm Study Notes

Review for Philosophy 2660 Midterm

I. Aristotle (384–322 BC): Metaphysics, Physics, and Astronomy

  • Purpose of Studying Aristotle

    • Examines the relevance of Aristotle's contributions despite the focus on 17th-century dramatic shifts in physics and philosophy.

  • Form and Matter

    • Characterization:

      • Form: The essence or nature of a thing.

      • Matter: The substance or material from which something is made.

    • Relationship:

      • Form identifies the nature of a thing; it is what gives shape and purpose to matter.

  • Actuality and Potentiality

    • Relationship between form/matter and actuality/potentiality:

      • Actuality: The realization of potential; a thing that is fully developed.

      • Potentiality: The capacity for change or development; the possibility inherent in matter.

  • Four Causes

    • Explanation of Aristotle's four causes:

      1. Material Cause: What something is made of.

      2. Formal Cause: The form or design of the thing.

      3. Efficient Cause: The agent or source that brings something into existence.

      4. Final Cause: The purpose or goal of the thing.

    • Comparison:

      • Construction of an artifact vs. development of an organism reflects different applications of the four causes.

  • Teleology and Final Causation

    • Role of teleology in Aristotle’s philosophy:

      • Explains the purposeful nature of existence and development in organisms and artifacts.

    • Contrast with Other Views:

      • Eliminativism (denies purpose) vs. Intentionalism (attributes purpose).

  • Plenum vs. Vacuum

    • Does Aristotle believe a vacuum exists?

      • No, he argues that nature abhors a vacuum; space cannot exist without matter.

  • Aristotle’s Universe System

    • Key components of Aristotle's cosmology:

      • Geocentrism: Earth is at the center of the universe.

      • Sublunar and Celestial Realms: Distinction between earthly, changeable matter and heavenly, unchangeable matter.

      • Nested Spheres: Spheres that move the sun, planets, and stars in circular orbits.

      • Four Elements: Earth, water, air, fire, each with natural places and motions.

II. Ptolemy, the Copernican Revolution, and Other Crucial Astronomical Developments

  • Ptolemy’s System

    • Astronomical phenomenon of retrogression: The apparent backward motion of planets.

    • Technical Devices: Various inventions in mathematical astronomy, like the epicycle.

    • Equants: Introduced to improve the accuracy of predictions in Ptolemaic astronomy, differing from previous uniform circular motions.

  • Mathematical vs. Physical Astronomy

    • Divergence:

      • Mathematical astronomy focuses on calculations and models; physical astronomy concerns the actual nature and explanation of celestial bodies.

  • Copernicus’ Assumptions

    • Overview of Copernican assumptions:

      • Central position of the sun, circular orbits, rotation of earth causing daily motion, etc.

    • Importance: These assumptions fundamentally shift the understanding of the universe.

  • Copernicus on Retrogression

    • His explanation: Retrogression occurs due to the earth’s orbit overtaking another planet’s orbit, leading to perceived backward motion.

  • Contrast of Ptolemy and Copernicus

    • Explanation of proximity of sun, Mercury, and Venus differs significantly in their models due to orbital mechanics.

  • Distance of Stars in Copernican System

    • Stars must be extremely far to maintain the celestial order and the observed motions of planets.

  • Earth's Motions According to Copernicus

    • Three motions:

      1. Daily rotation on its axis.

      2. Annual revolution around the sun.

      3. Axial tilt changing seasonal positions (third motion posited to explain varying night sky visibility).

  • Advantages and Disadvantages of Copernicus' System

    • Advantages: Simplifies the mathematical elegance of celestial mechanics aspects.

    • Disadvantages: Some implications may contradict observations of daily life at that time.

  • Novel Elements in Copernican System

    • Introduction of heliocentrism while retaining some Aristotelian components (e.g. circular orbits).

  • Osiander's Recommendations

    • Suggested that Copernicus' system be understood as a mathematical model rather than a physical reality; unclear if Copernicus agreed.

  • Kepler’s Great Innovation

    • Formulated laws of planetary motion, including elliptical orbits, fundamentally altering astronomical studies.

  • Observations Undermining Aristotelian Astronomy

    • New telescopic discoveries, such as moons of Jupiter and phases of Venus, contested old notions of celestial bodies.

III. Galileo (1564-1642) on Heliocentrism and Motion

  • Galileo’s Major Contributions

    • Known for championing heliocentrism, motion physics, and observational astronomy.

  • Galileo’s View of Inertia

    • Proposes that a body in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by an external force, contradicting Aristotelian notions of motion.

  • Aristotelian Arguments Against Earth’s Motion

    • Included examples from:

      • Dropping a cannonball, shooting cannons, observing birds, and the effects of wind on the earth’s surface.

    • Aristotelians viewed these as strong evidence against earth motion.

  • Principle of Inertia

    • Used to challenge Aristotelian arguments; demonstrates that motion does not require a medium (like air).

  • Galileo’s Boat Example

    • Illustration from Dialogues illustrating principles of relativity in motion is significant for understanding inertial frames.

  • Galileo on Biblical Interpretation

    • Took a controversial stance advocating that natural philosophy should not contradict scripture, resulting in conflict with religious authorities.