INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: A Very Short Introduction by Paul Wilkinson

Introduction to International Relations and Theoretical Perspectives

• International relations (IR) is a broad concept encompassing relations among states, non-state organisations (churches, humanitarian groups, multinational corporations), and intergovernmental organisations (IGOs) such as the UN and the EU.

• The study of IR is multidisciplinary, requiring knowledge in international history, law, economics, foreign policy, and international politics.

• General theories in IR are often perceptions or metaphors rather than scientifically proven models; significant schools include Realist theory, Liberal Institutionalism, and Postmodern Deconstructionism.

Realist Theory and its Origins

• Realism is the most influential school of thought in both US and West European academic and political circles.

• Precursors include Niccolo Machiavelli ($1469-1527$), author of The Prince ($1532$), and Thomas Hobbes, author of The Leviathan ($1651$).

• Realists assume human beings are motivated by self-interest and a "lust for power."

• In realism, the world is anarchic; international politics is a constant struggle for power, necessitating military readiness.

• Key modern realist assumptions: importance of alliance-building, the state as the primary actor, maintaining a balance of power, and scepticism toward international law or world governance.

Liberal Institutionalism and Interdependence

• Interdependence theory emerged in the $1970s$ as a critique of realism.

• It stresses the significance of non-state actors (e.g., multinational corporations) and argues that military power has become less relevant in global society.

• Liberal Institutionalism is more optimistic about human nature, suggesting that growing interdependence strengthens regional cooperation and the United Nations (UN).

• The development of the European Union (EU) is cited as a prime example of international politics moving beyond zero-sum power struggles.

Postmodern Deconstructionism and Critical Social Theory

• Postmodernists utilise "critical social theory" to deconstruct writings from academics and policymakers.

• They aim to uncover subjective meanings and cultural distortions within texts.

• A common criticism of this school is that it offers little constructive criticism of actual policies, focusing instead on linguistic patterns.

Anatomy of an International Crisis: The $2006$ Lebanon Conflict

• The conflict erupted on $13\,June$ and $12\,July\,2006$ involving Israel, Palestinian militants in Gaza, and the Lebanese Shi'ite movement Hezbollah.

• Historical Context: The $1982$ invasion of Lebanon was triggered by an assassination attempt on Shlomo Argov, Israel’s Ambassador in London, by the Abu Nidal Organisation (not the PLO).

• The $1982$ war led to the siege of Beirut and the massacre of Palestinian refugees in Sabra and Chatilla camps by Lebanese Phalangists while Israeli officers allegedly stood aside.

• Trigger for $2006$: Israeli shelling of a Gaza beach (killing $7$ members of a Palestinian family), followed by Hamas ending a ceasefire. Palestinian militants kidnapped an Israeli soldier, and Hezbollah captured $2$ additional Israeli soldiers, killing $8$ others.

• Israeli Response: A massive air bombardment of Lebanon began on $14\,July\,2006$, hitting civilian infrastructure and killing hundreds, including many children.

• Diplomatic Failure: The US, supported by Prime Minister Tony Blair, blocked calls for an immediate ceasefire at the G8 Conference and vetoed a UN Security Council resolution for Israeli withdrawal from Gaza.

• Key Lesson: Aerial bombardment is often ineffective and morally questionable when used against non-state guerrilla groups.

The Historical Evolution of the Modern State System

• Ancient Precursors: State characteristics (officials, standing armies, legal codes) emerged in Egypt, Persia, China, and Rome.

• Small City-States: Ancient Greece (Aristotle’s Politics) and Renaissance Italy (Machiavelli).

• The Peace of Westphalia ($1648$): Marked the end of the Thirty Years War and the start of the modern state system.

• Westphalian Principles: Curtailment of the Holy Roman Empire; recognition of $300$ German states as sovereign; and the secularization of the state system under the principle of Cujus regio, ejus religio (let the ruler's religion be the state's religion), established at Augsburg in $1555$ and extended to Calvinism in $1648$.

Criteria and Reality of Statehood

• International Law Criteria: A state must have a defined territory, a permanent population, a government with effective control, and the capacity to conduct international relations.

• Sovereignty Challenges: Many states (e.g., Afghanistan, Angola, Burma, Colombia, Somalia, Sudan) lack a monopoly on armed force but remain internationally recognized.

• Diplomatic Recognition: Today, recognition by the UN is the sine qua non (essential condition) for full statehood.

• The Nation-State: While states foster national identity (e.g., Indian or British nationalism), state and nation are rarely perfectly coterminous, leading to ethnic conflicts (e.g., the Kurds in the Middle East).

The US Superpower and Its Strategic Limits

• Parameters of Power: The US possesses a GDP over $2$ times larger than its nearest rival, the largest nuclear inventory, and high-tech military expenditure.

• Military Reach: Unrivaled speed in power projection via airlift and sealift assets.

• The "Special Relationship": A product of WWII and the Cold War; the Suez Crisis ($1956$) taught the UK never to oppose Washington, though Prime Ministers like Harold Wilson wisely refused to support the Vietnam War.

• Iraq War ($2003$): Justifications included Saddam Hussein’s alleged involvement in $9/11$ and possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), both proven bogus. By May $2007$, over $64,000$ civilians, $3,400$ US servicemen, and $148$ UK military personnel had been killed.

• Strategic Failures: The Iraq invasion served as a recruiting tool for Al Qaeda and destabilized the region.

The Security Dilemma and Balance of Power

• The Security Dilemma: As explored in Robert Jervis’s Perceptions and Misperceptions in International Politics ($1976$), actions taken by a state to enhance its security (alliances, rearmament) unintentionally increase the insecurity of rivals, creating a cycle.

• Balance of Power: Still central to IR, involving global balances (US vs. Russia/China) and regional balances (India vs. Pakistan, Israel vs. Muslim nations).

• Russian Revanchism: Under President Putin, Russia has sought to regain influence over former territories (Chechnya, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine) and opposed NATO expansion.

The Spectrum of State Coerciveness

• Coercion: Use or threat of physical force. All states are inherently coercive regarding law enforcement.

• Operative Liberal Democracies: Least coercive internally; power is checked by an independent judiciary and free elections.

• Totalitarianism: Explained by Hannah Arendt in The Origins of Totalitarianism ($1958$). Key traits defined by Friedrich and Brzezinski: universalist ideology, single mass party, secret police, control over communications, military monopoly, and centralized economy.

• Personal Tyrannies: Idi Amin (Uganda, $1971-1979$) killed approximately $300,000$ people; Saddam Hussein (Iraq, $1979-2003$) committed near-genocidal violence against Kurds, including utilizing chemical weapons in Halabja ($March\,1988$), killing over $6,000$.

• Economic Coercion: Use of sanctions (e.g., against Apartheid South Africa or Libya post-Lockerbie bombing in $1988$).

The Proper Use of Force in Liberal States

• Agency and Control: Civil control over the military is paramount. Internal security may involve civil police or special "third forces" (e.g., French CRS).

• Principle of Minimal Force: Primarily used by British police to restrain violence while maintaining public support.

• Limits of Minimal Force: Ineffective against large-scale armed insurgencies where the state must adopt a military offensive to survive.

Non-State Actors: Religions and Nationalism

• Religious Influence: Christianity shaped European IR law (e.g., Hugo Grotius's De Jure Belli ac Pacis, $1625$). Religion acts as both a humanitarian driver (Red Cross) and a source of conflict (Islamic fundamentalism in Iran, Jewish extremism in Israel).

• Origins of Nationalism: Emerged from the French Revolution and the writings of Rousseau. The Versailles Settlement ($1919$) attempted to draw maps based on national self-determination but created fresh minority problems.

• Types of Nationalism: Cultural-linguistic (Slavs, Irish) and Anti-colonial (Third World movements liberating from imperial rule).

Insurgencies, Terrorism, and the New Global Threat

• Guerrilla Warfare: "War of the flea" (Taber). Effective in tying down large security forces despite technological inferiority.

• Definition of Terrorism: Systematic use of coercive intimidation for political ends. Internal vs. International terrorism.

• Al Qaeda Network: The "New Terrorism." Features: explicit goal of mass civilian killing (Bin Laden's $1998$ fatwa), global reach across $60$ countries, use of coordinated suicide vehicle bombs, and active pursuit of WMD.

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) and the UN

• League of Nations: Failed due to lack of US participation, the requirement for unanimous voting, and its inability to reflect real balance of power in the face of Nazi/Japanese aggression.

• United Nations (UN): Founded at Dumbarton Oaks and San Francisco. Six major organs: Security Council ($5$ permanent members with veto power), General Assembly, Secretariat, Economic and Social Council, International Court of Justice, and Trusteeship Council.

• UN Successes: Specialized agencies (WHO, FAO, UNESCO) and peace-keeping missions (Cyprus, former Yugoslavia, Congo).

• UN Reform: Proposals by leaders like Tony Blair include enlarging the Security Council and enhancing pre-emptive military capacity, though these face opposition from Russia and China.

The European Union and Other Regional Bodies

• EU Origins: Schuman Plan ($1950$), Treaty of Paris ($1951$) establishing the ECSC, and Treaty of Rome ($1957$) establishing the EEC and EURATOM.

• Economic Integration: The Single Market and the Euro currency. The EU has $4$ times the membership of the original EEC.

• Democratic Deficit: The gap between the integrationist elite and citizens, highlighted by the rejection of the EU Constitution by French and Dutch voters in $2005$.

• Other IGOs: ASEAN (founded $1967$ via Bangkok Declaration), ECOWAS ($1975$), SAARC ($1985$), and the Commonwealth ($53$ voluntary member states).

Global Challenges: Environment and Weapons of Mass Destruction

• Global Warming: IPCC scientists link carbon emissions to the greenhouse effect. US rejected Kyoto Protocol ($1997$). Predictions include disappearing Arctic ice within $50$ years and sea-level rise of $18\,cm$ by $2030$.

• Nuclear Proliferation: Vertical (improving arsenals) and Horizontal (more states acquiring bombs). $1945$ attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed $200,000$. Modern warheads use Hiroshima-sized bombs as mere triggers.

• Arms Control: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ($1968$) and the IAEA inspection regime. Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission (WMDC) chaired by Dr. Hans Blix urges rededication to treaties.

• Biological and Chemical Weapons: Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) ($1993$) and Biological Weapons Convention ($1972$). Botulism toxin is lethal enough that $1\,g$ could theoretically kill $1,000,000$ people.

Human Rights and the North/South Divide

• Genocide: Defined by the UN Genocide Convention ($1948$). Cases include the Holocaust, Pol Pot’s Cambodia ($2,000,000$ deaths), Rwanda, and Darfur ($2003$ onward).

• International Criminal Court (ICC): Established in Rome ($1988$); went into force with $60$ ratifications in $April\,2002$. The US remains a notable non-party.

• Economic Disparity: Polarization between Advanced Industrial Countries (AICs) and Less Developed Countries (LDCs). "Tiger" economies (NICs) like South Korea and Singapore have achieved high per capita GDP via export-led growth.

• Brandt Report ($1980$): North-South: A Programme for Survival advocated for "international Keynesianism" and debt relief to address the poverty trap.