Voltaire Against Optimism
Voltaire, Rousseau, and the Lisbon Earthquake
Pope’s Prophecy
Reference to Alexander Pope’s "An Essay on Man"
Imagined conversation with personified Pride
Lines include:
"But errs not nature from this gracious end, From burning suns when livid death descend, When earthquakes swallow or when tempests sweep Towns for one grave, whole nations to the deep?"
Pope’s rejection of the notion that natural disasters (droughts, earthquakes, storms) are deviations from the natural order.
Pope claims that such events are inevitable outcomes of divine order:
Defined as the "great chain of being" and general laws willed by God.
The 1755 Lisbon Earthquake served as a significant challenge to optimistic philosophical views.
The Lisbon Earthquake of 1755
Date and Impact:
Occurred on November 1, 1755, impacting Portugal, Spain, and Morocco.
Estimated magnitude of at least 7.7 on the Richter scale.
Notable devastation due to subsequent events following the earthquake.
Significance of Timing:
Occurred on All Saints Day, a Catholic holiday with many candles lit in homes and churches.
The earthquake upset these candles, leading to widespread fires throughout Lisbon.
Tsunami Trigger:
Epicenter of the earthquake located in the Atlantic Ocean, triggering a tsunami.
The tsunami destroyed the harbor, engulfed the city center, and sent waves up the Tagus River causing further destruction.
Population and Casualties:
Prior to the earthquake, Lisbon's population was approximately 200,000.
Estimated deaths between 10,000 and 40,000, affecting surrounding regions in Portugal, Spain, and Northern Africa.
Continental Attention:
The event drew the attention of scholars, scientists, and monarchs across Europe.
Philosophical reactions were particularly significant, reflecting on the nature of evil and divine justice.
The earthquake occurred in a developed, Christian (Catholic) realm on a religious holiday, increasing its impact on European thought.
Contextualized Within Enlightenment Optimism:
The event occurred against a backdrop of Enlightenment optimism, particularly through the lens of theories by Pope and Leibniz.
Philosophical Reactions to Lisbon
Key Philosophers Involved:
François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire) (1694-1778) - French Enlightenment figure; involved in philosophy, poetry, and drama.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - Philosopher, political theorist, novelist; another prominent figure of the French Enlightenment.
Voltaire’s “Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne”
Two notable works by Voltaire inspired by the Lisbon earthquake:
"Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne" published in 1756.
Satirical novel "Candide, ou l'Optimisme" published in 1759.
Themes in Voltaire’s Works:
"Candide" serves as a satire of Leibniz’s Theodicy; its subtitle ironically claims a "translation from the German".
The poem critically targets the optimism expressed in Pope’s "Essay on Man".
Voltaire shifted from optimism to a firm rejection of it post-earthquake.
Example lines reflecting change:
"Once did I sing, in less lugubrious tone/The sunny ways of pleasure’s genial rule;/The times have changed […]"
Voltaire’s Case against Pope
Pope's View on Natural Evils:
Natural evils are reconciled with God’s goodness as outcomes of general laws for divine order.
Pope viewed moral evils (e.g., sins of historical figures) as problematic.
Voltaire’s Rebuttal:
Lisbon's casualties serve as a clear instance of a natural event that cannot be justified through concepts of divine goodness and order.
Calls out the philosophical perspective that justifies natural disasters:
Example lines from Voltaire:
"Come, ye philosophers, who cry, ‘All’s well,’/And contemplate this ruin of a world. […] A hundred thousand whom the earth devours,/ Who, torn and bloody, palpitating yet,/Entombed beneath their hospitable roofs…"
Against Optimism (I)
Voltaire argues the evil of the Lisbon earthquake is self-evident.
The gory imagery in the poem underscores the devastation against optimistic views.
Anticipated rejoinders from optimists:
Claims that casualties weren't innocent due to inherent sin (e.g., original sin).
Voltaire counters by highlighting young victims (innocents), questioning the assumption of punishment for sin:
"Did fallen Lisbon deeper drink of vice/Than London, Paris, or sunlit Madrid?"
Against Optimism (II)
Second Optimistic Response Addressed:
Natural disasters as a part of the natural order—part of divine law.
Voltaire challenges the notion that God is bound by such natural laws:
Advocates that God must be free and just, questioning why suffering exists under such justice:
Example lines:
"Nay, press not on my agitated heart/These iron and irrevocable laws…"
God could alter calamities to occur in remote areas to avoid human suffering:
Reference to a "gulf of fire and sulphur" potentially avoided.
Against Optimism (III)
Voltaire refutes Pope’s claim that pride leads humans to challenge natural order.
Proposes that the response to suffering is a natural, humane impulse, not pride:
Example lines illustrating humanity's plea for help in suffering:
"’Tis pride,’ ye say—‘the pride of the rebel heart,/To think we might fare better than we do.’"
Voltaire’s Position
Ambiguity exists regarding whether Voltaire takes God to have willed the earthquake.
Possible views include:
Original Sin: Suffering as punishment.
Deistic Approach: God set the universe in motion without concern for humanity.
Material Resistance: Evil results from the inherent faults of matter.
Test of Faith: Life as a trial leading to eternal spheres.
Voltaire and Rousseau
Rousseau’s response to Voltaire's poem in a letter dated August 18, 1756.
Noted differences in their philosophical outlooks:
Prior tensions from before the earthquake – Voltaire dismissed Rousseau's earlier work as a critique of humanity.
Rousseau criticized Voltaire’s poem for exacerbating the sentiment of suffering rather than offering consolation.
Illustrative quotation from Rousseau expressing disappointment:
"you cause[d] me only to be afflicted."
Rousseau’s Defense of Optimism
Rousseau promotes an optimistic worldview based on its comforting qualities.
Critique of Voltaire’s approach:
Rousseau claims it leads to despair contrary to optimistic views:
"Pope’s poem sweetens my ills and leads me to patience…"
Emphasis on patience in the face of suffering and finding positive perspectives through optimism.
Rousseau’s Philosophical Defense of Optimism
Acknowledges real harm from natural disasters, arguing human agency is often responsible for the extent of damage:
Conditions of human settlements and societal structures play a role in magnifying disasters.
Example argument:
Point about human structures contributing to the magnitude of destruction in Lisbon.
Critique of attachment to material possessions during disasters:
"How many unfortunate people have perished in this disaster because of one wanting to take his clothes…"
Conclusion on Rousseau’s View
Rousseau rejects the idea that natural evils arise from nature alone:
Claims that human activity and societal inequalities exacerbate suffering.
Better understanding of whether Rousseau aligns as an optimist or pessimist warrants further discussion.
Study Questions for Week 4
Examination of Voltaire's challenge to philosophical optimism through the lens of the Lisbon earthquake.
Upcoming focus on objections to optimism based on moral evils, specifically regarding the institution of slavery.
Suggested reading: Ottobah Cugoano’s "Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species" (1787).
Primary study questions:
Who are the 'craftsmen' referenced by Cugoano?
What is the 'specious pretense' mentioned, and what does it justify?
What is meant by 'insensibility' concerning slave-holders and defenders?