Notes on the Founding and Deportation of Acadians

Foundation of Acadia

Acadia was founded in 1604 by Pierre Dugat, Sieur de Monts, representing the King of France. The initial location chosen for the colony was Île Sainte-Croix (also known as Toshitte, Aiman, or Rendjoud).

Samuel de Champlain was part of this expedition. The harsh winter conditions led to the death of about half of the men. In the spring, Gravé Dupont arrived with reinforcements consisting of 36 men and fresh supplies.

Relocation to Port-Royal and English Attacks

Due to the difficulties faced at Île Sainte-Croix, the colony was moved to Port-Royal. However, by 1613, Acadia faced attacks from the English.

Amidst the war between France and England in 1627, only the settlement of Cap Sable, governed by Charles de Latour, remained. In 1629, the British established Fort Charles near the old Port-Royal settlement.

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1632 restored Acadia to France.

Acadian Capitulation and Treaty of Utrecht

In 1710, the Acadians capitulated to the British army. France formally ceded Acadia to Great Britain in 1713 through the Treaty of Utrecht. The British renamed the colony Nova Scotia.

At this point, there were approximately 3,000 Acadians in Nova Scotia. The Treaty of Utrecht allowed Acadians to leave their lands within a year or remain and become loyal British subjects with the freedom to practice Catholicism.

British Concerns and Acadian Neutrality

The British initially did not deport the Acadians as the governor believed the Franco-Catholics could not be loyal to the British Crown. A plan was proposed on July 27, 1718, to deport Acadians to Martinique and Plaisance (now Saint-Pierre). However, Acadia's importance to Queen Anne's ministers in England prevented the plan's execution.

In a letter from June 1713, the Queen of Great Britain assured the Acadians who wished to remain that they could retain their lands and property without harassment, enjoying the same freedoms as other British subjects.

Acadians faced a choice: resettle on Île Royale or stay in Nova Scotia as British subjects. Most Acadians were reluctant to start anew, which suited the British, who did not want a reinforced French colony on Île Royale.

Oath of Allegiance and Neutrality

In September 1727, upon the death of George I and the ascension of George II, a new oath of allegiance was required. The Acadians requested exemption from military service to remain neutral in conflicts between Great Britain and France.

This condition was verbally accepted, but not officially written in the English version of the document sent to Great Britain; it was, however, recorded in the French notarial act. Thus, the Acadians believed this oath ensured their neutrality, leading to their nickname: "French Neutrals."

Abolition of Seigneurial System and Land Disputes

Following the oath of allegiance issue, British authorities considered abolishing the seigneurial system and reinstating Anglo-Saxon traditions of free tenure and land ownership. In 1732, Governor Philipps abolished the seigneurial system.

However, Acadians resisted British attempts to survey their lands. Surveyor Don Bart complained of a lack of land for British colonists due to the growing Acadian population.

In 1733, the British Crown purchased Acadian seigneurial titles from Agathe de Saint-Étienne de la Tour, widow of Bradstreet and Campbell (British officers). This sale effectively ended the French seigneurial regime, making the King of Great Britain the new and sole landlord of Acadia.

War of Austrian Succession and British Strategies

In March 1744, the War of the Austrian Succession broke out among European countries. Great Britain allied with Austria, while France allied with Prussia, Bavaria, and Spain. The French aimed to recapture Acadia, vital for protecting New France.

The French of Île Royale hoped the Acadians would join them against the British, while the British counted on the Acadians' promise of neutrality, which most upheld.

During the war, Massachusetts Governor William Shirley devised a plan to assimilate Acadians over 2-3 generations by integrating British clubs among them. King George and Secretary of State McKinsey approved this plan, including deportation if necessary, as indicated in a letter to Shirley in October 1747.

Fort Construction and Acadian Concerns

Following the capture of Île Royale in 1745, Acadians in Nova Scotia feared expulsion. To quell their concerns, Governor Shirley issued a proclamation on October 21, 1747, assuring them of protection and maintenance of their possessions and rights as long as they remained loyal.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and Renewed Colonial Tensions

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed on October 18, 1748, ended the war, with Great Britain returning Île Royale to France. Post-war, British authorities feared a potential Acadian revolt and thus decided to increase military presence in Acadian settlements, deport Acadians who refused unconditional oaths, and establish British Protestant settlers.

The new governor, Colonel Edward Cornwallis, was mandated to implement this colonization policy, which included building a port on the Atlantic coast to rival Louisbourg, establishing British settlers, and reinforcing military presence.

Unconditional Oath and Acadian Resistance

On July 25, 1749, Cornwallis demanded an unconditional oath of allegiance from the Acadians within three months. On August 11, Acadian delegates reminded Cornwallis of the 1730 oath conditions and the 1747 proclamation.

Cornwallis deemed these earlier agreements illegal. On September 18, 1749, delegates returned with a petition from 1,000 Acadians requesting adherence to past conditions or permission to leave the colony. Unable to force a new oath, Cornwallis decided not to press the issue until instructions arrived from British authorities.

Cornwallis offered land concessions to Acadians who converted to Protestantism and encouraged marriages with Protestant subjects. Loper, in a Boston newspaper article, suggested expelling the French immediately before the next war declaration to secure passage.

Anti-Catholic Sentiment

In Protestant churches in Massachusetts, pastors like Jonathan Mayhew, Samuel Checkley, and Jonathan Edwards openly portrayed French Catholics as enemies of God and members of the Antichrist's kingdom.

Plans for Acadian Removal

On September 17, 1754, Charles Lawrence was officially appointed Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia. In autumn 1754, Lawrence, supported by Lord Halifax, George Tighe, Charles Morris, Lieutenant Governor Robert Monckton, William Shirley, and Charles Morse, planned to end French presence in the Chignecto Isthmus.

Thomas Pichon, a sub-delegate of the Intendant of New France at Fort Beauséjour, provided detailed plans of the forts and copies of official letters, along with information on Acadian refugees.

Deportation Decision and Implementation

On November 16, 1754, Colonial Affairs Minister Thomas Robinson outlined attack plans against French Acadia. In January 1755, Major General Edward Braddock finalized plans to attack Fort Beauséjour.

In a letter dated January 30, 1755, Charles Lawrence instructed Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton not to administer the oath of allegiance to Acadians in the Chignecto district, as it would hinder their expulsion. Lawrence confiscated Acadian arms in Annapolis Royal and Grand-Pré in May 1755.

Troops left Boston on May 19 and arrived on May 26. On June 4, Lawrence warned Acadians who hadn't surrendered their weapons would be considered rebels.

After confiscating Acadian arms, Lawrence demanded a new unconditional oath. On July 16, 1755, Acadians in Annapolis Royal met to discuss the new oath, and on July 22, a similar meeting was held at Les Mines.

Their response was firm: they would not alter the conditions and privileges under which they had been placed by their former sovereigns and fathers.

On July 28, 1755, Chief Justice Jonathan Belcher declared the Acadians as rebels and stated that they should not be allowed to take the oath nor be tolerated in the province.

During the Royal Council of Nova Scotia on July 28, the decision to deport the Acadians was made. On August 9, 1755, British authorities dispatched the deportation order.

The Great Upheaval

The news was published in various newspapers, including the New York Gazette on August 25, 1755, the Pennsylvania Gazette on September 4, 1755, and the Maryland Gazette on September 11, 1755. The Acadians of the Fort Beauséjour region were the first to be deported in October 1755.

Subsequently, the British deported Acadians from the Mines region and concluded with those from the Annapolis Royal region in December 1755. A total of 6,411 people were deported from Nova Scotia in 1755 and 1756. From this number, 232 passengers on the Pembroke were subtracted as they managed to divert the ship to the St. John River. 6,171 Acadians were deported, including 6,003 in autumn 1755 and 168 in spring 1756.

In 1755, before the deportation, there were 14,143 Acadians. After this initial deportation, only 8,064 Acadians remained in French Acadia, Île Saint-Jean, and Île Royale.

In August-September 1758, the British deported 3,107 inhabitants from Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and 3,928 inhabitants from Île Royale (Cape Breton), along with 31 fishermen from Astérix and 220 Acadians from Cap-Sable to France and England. Approximately 13,465 people were deported, the vast majority of whom were Acadian.

This massive forced migration is known as "Le Grand Dérangement" or The Great Upheaval.

André-Carl Vachon co-authored the information presented. Vachon is an author of Acadian history.