Developmental Psychology Study Guide ch 5

Developmental Psychology

5 Introduction

  • Definition: Developmental psychology is the study of how the mind and behavior progress as an individual grows.

  • Historical Focus: Initially centered only on infants and children; now acknowledges that development continues throughout life.

  • Case Study: Extreme isolation and abuse cases, such as that of "Genie", provide insights into human development.

5.1 The Brain

  • Overview of Brain Development:

    • Involves the addition of new neurons and connections, as well as the loss of neurons and synapses.

    • The specific experiences shape which neurons and connections are retained or lost.

5.1.1 Early Development Stages

  • Zygote Stage: The fertilized egg.

  • Embryo Stage: Continues for weeks 2-8.

    • The outer cell layer forms the placenta, which supplies nutrients and oxygen.

    • The inner cell mass divides to form the body.

  • Fetus Stage: Begins around the 9th week.

    • The nervous system starts as a hollow neural tube that develops into the brain and spinal cord.

5.1.2 Six Stages of Brain Development

  1. Neurogenesis: Rapid formation of neurons from dividing cells before birth.

  2. Cell Migration: Neurons move to form specific brain regions.

  3. Differentiation: Neurons develop into various types.

  4. Synaptogenesis: Formation of synapses, creating billions of connections between neurons.

  5. Neuronal Cell Death: Many neurons die due to inappropriate connections, ceasing before birth.

  6. Synapse Rearrangement: Continuous adjustment of synapses throughout life; during childhood, synapses are gained more than lost.

5.1.3 Postnatal Brain Growth Experiences

  • Following birth, the brain grows due to an increase in synaptic connections.

  • Early experiences significantly influence brain development.

5.1.4 Vulnerabilities in Brain Development

  • Teratogen: A substance (like certain chemicals or alcohol) that disrupts development, potentially leading to malformations.

  • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Results from alcohol consumption during pregnancy, leading to distinct facial features, mental impairment, and potential absence of the corpus callosum.

5.1.5 Experience and Critical Periods

  • Sensitive Periods: Developmental times when certain experiences showcase significant impact; e.g., light deprivation in infants leads to permanent changes unlike in adults.

  • Plasticity: The brain’s ability to change; notably higher in developing brains compared to adults.

    • Children with brain damage show greater recovery potential due to enhanced synaptic plasticity.

5.2 The Developing Mind

5.2.1 Reflexes and Motor Development

  • Newborns exhibit unlearned reflexes, including:

    • Grasping Reflex

    • Rooting Reflex

    • Sucking Reflex

  • Motor skills are acquired progressively and reflect brain maturation.

5.2.2 Genetic and Environmental Influences

  • Factors like Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) are linked to genetics and environmental conditions.

    • The “Back to Sleep” campaign significantly reduced SIDS rates.

  • Motor Skill Progression: Sleeping position influences motor skill development pace.

5.2.3 Sensory Development

  • Infants have poor vision at birth due to immature retina neurons; vision improves rapidly over the first months.

  • Infants exhibit depth perception by refusing to crawl over visual cliffs.

  • Auditory systems are more developed at birth than visual systems, with infants showing preferences for speech-like sounds.

5.2.4 Perception and Preference

  • Tracking Eye Movements: This behavior allows researchers to infer infant preferences.

  • Facelike Image Preference: Infants prefer to look at images that resemble faces, a preference that strengthens with age.

  • Habituation Technique: This method tracks infants’ adapting to stimuli, determining visual system development.

5.2.5 Memory Development

  • Infants demonstrate memory capabilities, e.g., through the habituation technique by distinguishing between familiar and new images.

  • Infantile Amnesia: Typically, adults do not recall early childhood memories due to a lack of language at the time memories were formed.

5.2.6 Attention and Behavioral Differences

  • Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Characterized by difficulty in focusing attention and controlling impulses.

  • Most commonly diagnosed in boys, with varying rates of diagnosis based on location.

  • Medications like methylphenidate (Ritalin) help improve symptoms in many children.

5.2.7 Cognitive Development - Piaget’s Theory

  • Cognitive Development is defined as the progressive increase in a child's cognitive abilities (reasoning, problem-solving, language).

  • Jean Piaget's Contributions:

    • Children are active learners (constructivism).

    • Learning is through Assimilation (integrating new information) and Accommodation (modifying existing frameworks based on new information).

5.2.8 Stages of Cognitive Development

  • Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Exploring sensory experiences, learning object permanence.

  • Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Language and egocentrism; lack of theory of mind.

  • Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Ability to think logically; concrete thinking but struggles with abstract concepts.

  • Formal Operational Stage (11+ years): Developing abstract reasoning and problem-solving capabilities.

5.2.9 Impact of Attachment on Development

  • Temperament: The individual’s emotional makeup, usually inherited, affecting lifelong emotional responses.

  • Stranger Anxiety: Indicates emotional development as infants begin to have negative responses to unfamiliar individuals.

  • John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth's work: Classification of attachment styles (secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized) based on infant responses to caregiver interactions and their long-term implications.

5.2.10 Quality of Daycare and Attachment

  • While daycare does not significantly differ in attachment outcomes compared to home care, high-quality daycare influences better developmental outcomes.

5.3 Adolescence: Developing Identity

5.3.1 Changes during Adolescence

  • Puberty marks the onset of reproductive capability. Adolescence is defined by the transition from childhood to adulthood.

  • Influenced by physical changes due to hormonal activity leading to secondary sexual characteristics.

  • Menarche: First menstrual cycle, occurs earlier in Western societies.

5.3.2 Societal Influences on Sexual Maturation

  • Influenced by factors like nutrition, environmental chemicals, and social experiences like parent presence/absence.

5.3.3 Social Dynamics of Adolescence

  • Adolescents maintain strong relationships with family while seeking peer validation and friendships, leading to independence.

  • Adolescence can bring about mood swings and risk-taking behavior.

5.3.4 Moral Development

  • Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development: Preconventional (personal consequences), Conventional (social expectations), and Postconventional (human rights and social contracts).

  • Case Study (Heinz's Dilemma): Used to discuss moral reasoning and the ethical implications of law versus moral obligation.

5.4 Adulthood and Beyond

5.4.1 Physical Changes and Aging

  • Observable changes during aging, including the gradual decline of sensory and cognitive abilities.

  • Menopause: Natural cessation of menstrual cycles in women, around age 50.

5.4.2 Emotional Responses to Aging

  • Aging leads to a range of emotional responses, including grief, adjustment, and a desire for a dignified death.

  • Most elderly report life satisfaction despite challenges.

5.4.3 Cognitive Function Decline

  • Dementia and specifically Alzheimer’s Disease: Cognitive decline caused by neuronal damage, with an emphasis on maintaining physical and mental activity to delay symptoms.

5.4.4 Two Types of Intelligence in Aging

  • Fluid Intelligence: Decreases with age; potential problem-solving issues.

  • Crystallized Intelligence: Knowledge base increases with age until late adulthood.

5.4.5 Maintaining Quality Of Life

  • Despite inevitable declines, many elderly individuals maintain a positive outlook.

  • Concept of a “Good Death” includes dignity, choice, and minimal suffering, ensuring that end-of-life wishes are honored.

5.4.6 Caregiver Considerations

  • Understanding the importance of emotional support and the impact of healthy social engagement in the elderly to help maintain cognitive functions.