Can You Feel Your Language? An exploration of Indigenous Urban Language Learning and the Restorative Possibilities for Mind, Body, and Spirit

Introduction

Indigenous peoples in Canada have diverse languages and cultures.
Despite colonization, they value their languages and cultures.
Many Indigenous people live in urban areas for education, career opportunities, etc.
Urban centers are initiating Indigenous language programs.
This paper explores the challenges and possibilities for urban language learning, particularly focusing on Kwak̓wala and the Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw people of BC.
Key questions:
- Can Kwak̓wala be learned and Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw perspectives understood outside their territory?
- Can language learning have psychosomatic, physiological, or supernatural effects, leading to "feeling your language?"

Background: Urban Indigenous Populations

Over 50% of band-registered Indians live off-reserve in urban and rural areas (Statistics Canada, 2016).
This number excludes non-status Indians, Métis, and Inuit urban populations.
Reasons for the shift include colonial influence, forced relocation, education, career, economic needs, and housing.
Colonization impacts Indigenous communities, pushing many to seek better lives elsewhere.
The Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw territory is around northern Vancouver Island and the BC coast.
The nation has 14-16 tribes, but few remain in their original villages; many ancestral sites have been abandoned.
The majority of Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw people now live in urban environments.
The Dzawada̱ 'enux̱w are among the few still in their original territory (Uk̓wa̱nalis, Kingcome Inlet).
Only 60 of approximately 600 Dzawada̱ 'enux̱w band members remain in Uk̓wa̱nalis.
There are only one or two first-language Kwak̓wala speakers remaining in the village, who are elderly and unable to consistently teach the language.

Kwak̓wala Language Loss

Only 2.2% of Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw are proficient first-language Kwak̓wala speakers (Dunlop et al., 2018).
Most speakers are elderly, and no Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw children speak the language proficiently.
The term Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw refers to Kwak̓wala-speaking people and defines them as a Nation.
Concern exists about what will happen when all speakers are gone, potentially within 5-10 years in some communities.

Kwak̓wala Language Renewal

The description of the Kwak̓wala language situation from Anthony et al. (2003) still stands in 2021:
- Occasional enthusiasm and funding for teacher training, curriculum development, and technology.
- History of teacher burnout, student stagnation, and community disillusionment, with language maintenance left to schools.
- School programs haven't produced fluent speakers; fluent speakers are aging and decreasing in number.
- Little incentive to learn the language as it is seldom used outside the $gukwdzi$ ('bighouse').
Current Kwak̓wala continuity relies heavily on elementary schools within Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw communities.
Schools typically have one or two language and culture teachers who spend about one hour per day with students.
Teachers are stretched thin, with minimal support, resources or curriculum, and are expected to facilitate both language and culture programs, including traditional songs and dances for potlatches.
These “language exposure” programs haven't produced proficient speakers.
Kwak̓wala is rarely spoken outside of the $gukwdzi$ , and even then, less Kwak̓wala is spoken during potlatches and cultural events.
Many newer $gigame'$ (chiefs, cultural leaders) are unable to speak Kwak̓wala.

Importance of Language Connection and Honouring the Language of the Land

Many Indigenous people value their mother tongue and believe language continuity is important (FPCC, 2016; NAFC, 2018; OFIFC, 2015).
Language connection is especially important for urban Indigenous populations, linking them to homelands, communities, families, and cultural practices.
Ancestral language learning can offer healing and connection to land.
Wildcat et al. (2014) argue land-based education is essential to decolonization, reconnecting Indigenous peoples to land, social relations, knowledge, and languages.
Land-based learning involves Indigenous worldview, traditional ecological knowledge, and responsible care for the land (Bang et al., 2014).
Urban Indigenous identity differs from those in homelands, but a strong sense of identity supported by ancestral language is crucial (Child, 2016; Erasmus, 2019; Hallet et al., 2007; Thompson, 2012).
Honouring the language of the land is also important.
Natalie Baloy discusses "placing language" (honouring local languages) in urban language learning and emphasizes the importance of establishing a protocol with the language keepers of the land and requesting guidance.
Following protocol and learning the land’s ancestral language increases the likelihood of a genuine language learning experience.
As a Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw member in Snuneymuxw territory (Nanaimo), the author acknowledges protocols for cultural work in another Nation’s territory.
It is customary to acknowledge the traditional territory and people before conducting any cultural practices, including language work.
The author's family follows protocol in Snuneymuxw territory and acknowledges the Nation and territory as well as the Hul'q'umin'um' language.
They also reach out to those involved in Hul'q'umin'um' language revitalization for mutual support and guidance, especially when incorporating land-based learning.
The author is collaborating with a Hul'q'umin'um' language teacher on a land-inspired Facebook project, sharing Hul'q'umin'um' words for shared content and place names.
Honouring the Hul'q'umin'um' language enhances the Kwak̓wala learning journey.

Challenges for Urban Language Learning

Learning an endangered Indigenous language in an urban context has obvious complexities and challenges.
Minimal access to speakers is a major obstacle.
The Kwagu'ł community of Tsax̱is (Fort Rupert) has at least five proficient Kwak̓wala speakers while the Dzawada̱ 'enux̱w community of Uk̓wa̱nalis (Kingcome Inlet) has none.
The Kwak̓wala language learning community group in Snuneymuxw had only one consistent first-language Kwak̓wala speaker until recently.
Five speakers attended a special event and offered support, but the group has been at a standstill since the onset of Covid-19.
Urban first-language speakers may need time to reawaken their language speaking ability.
Tłi'linux̱w, Sara Child, revealed that speakers she has been working with are still remembering words from childhood even after 10 years of revitalization work.
Many urban Indigenous populations are unable to attend classes due to poverty issues.
Inconsistent attendance in urban community language classes is correlated with the impoverished state of participants (OFIFC, 2015).
Challenges include transportation issues, as many families rely on public transit.
Busing across the city with children in the evening can be difficult, preventing attendance at community events and language classes.
Until recently, there were no funding sources specifically for urban language-learning initiatives in BC.
The First Peoples’ Cultural Council (FPCC) states that there is often no specific funding for language acquisition and maintenance in urban settings (2016, p. 29).
Community groups often come together with little or no funding, making it difficult to pay for space, transportation, and nourishment.
It is difficult for first-language speakers and facilitators to make a commitment without compensation due to the costs of living in the city.
The FPCC also states that addressing the needs of language groups who are some distance from their homeland is an issue for Indigenous urban language learning (2016, p. 30).
Greater distance increases the challenge in finding first-language speakers.
Protocols may need to be considered in acknowledging the Indigenous peoples of the land and their respective language, referencing Natalie Baloy's concept of "placing language."
Dialect differences can be problematic, with older and newer versions of words and phrases arising, which can be tricky to navigate (OFIFC, 2015).
Even within the same dialect, there can be vast differences.
Example: Searching for the Kwak̓wala word for scarf revealed different terms and usages depending on the speaker and dialect.
A lack of adequate language learning resources can be an issue.
Space issues can also be of concern, particularly for groups without rent-free access to community buildings.

Positives and Current Strategies in Urban Language Learning

Introductory language-learning groups can provide opportunities for those who have never had access to learning the language (FPCC, 2016).
These initiatives can connect learners with others of the same ancestry, which can be meaningful, and can provide a more supportive environment than in a reserve community (FPCC, 2016, p. 29).
The Mentor-Apprentice Program (MAP) requires only two people and is not bound by residence (Hinton, 2001), providing an opportunity for individuals to learn in urban centers.
The FPCC highlights a MAP team as a “success” where an urban community group formed around a Mentor-Apprentice pair (FPCC, 2016).
MAP teams can strengthen other community programs.
Facebook is also increasingly used to support community learning at a distance.
Facebook is used to share resources, post forums for language discussions, and share popular memes.
Memes are humorous images, videos, or pieces of text that are copied and spread rapidly by Internet users.
Tehakanere John Henhawk creates and shares Mohawk memes to promote the language.
Facebook memes have also become a fun way to share the Kwak̓wala language.
First Voices and YouTube are also popular resources.
FaceTime and Skype are useful for connecting with mentors, and the telephone can enable a conversation in the language (FPCC, 2016, p. 30).

Future Strategies in Urban Language Learning

Equal opportunities for urban Indigenous peoples to learn their language are valuable (FPCC, 2016).
Consistent and adequate funding should equally support both urban and non-urban language-learning initiatives.
The National Association of Friendship Centres (NAFC) emphasizes the importance of “safe spaces where people are not afraid to fail or speak without being judged” (2018, p. 15).
Creating and encouraging safe spaces for Kwak̓wala learning is essential.
Potential for new digital technologies and online platforms to support language learning (Carpenter et al., 2017; Galla, 2016).
Indigenous radio also has great potential (UNESCO, 2019).
Technology can provide “a less intimidating venue for the learner” (Galla, 2016, p. 1144) or an alternative method for practicing pronunciation.
Creating new words for urban and modern living would also be beneficial.
There are areas where no Kwak̓wala exists, such as vehicles, city housing, and food groups found at the grocery store.
There seem to be few words available to refer to the different types of modern housing, such as apartments and the high rises found in the downtown core.
There are minimal words to talk about the wide range of foods in the grocery store and on our dinner tables.
Kwak̓wala has few words referring to fruits and vegetables, and so the general words used refer only to “something sweet to eat” and “something that grows from the ground.”
Creating new words for modern day use is imperative to language continuity for both urban and non-urban learners but may be of greater importance for those in the city.

Land-Based Language Learning

Land-based learning is significant for urban language learning endeavors.
Language is connected to their lands, and for language learning to be authentic, opportunities for learning language out on their ancestral territories should be provided (Child, 2016; Erasmus, 2019; Kahtehron:ni, 2019; Rorick, 2019; Rosborough & Rorick, 2017).
Child emphasizes the importance of language learning on the land and believes a restoration of Indigenous wellness is possible only if it occurs within traditional territories because this is where their wellness springs from (Child, 2016, p. 52).
Kahtehron:ni suggests a kincentric approach to community language planning, with self and nature seen as part of an extended ecological family (Kahtehron:ni, 2016).
Erasmus (2019) puts forward the need for immersive language learning to take place on the land.
Land-based language learning is something aspired to by Indigenous language learners and teachers, but it can be a challenging task, especially for urban members.
Many urban Indigenous members are consumed by their day-to-day requirements of providing a home, food, and clothing for their families as well as working through the residual effects of the colonial system.
Therefore, the ability to travel back to their home communities for language learning opportunities on their ancestral lands is compromised.
Land-based language learning as programming that involves bringing participants out on the land to origin sites, to traditional food harvesting locations, and incorporates traditional harvesting practices and so on is difficult.
As these sites may not be a part of an urban learner’s ancestral history, learning about them may also be irrelevant.
Bringing Elder first-language speakers out on the land is not a possibility for many due to age, limited mobility, and health issues.
So, land-based learning initiatives may need to take place without first-language speakers who are usually the best resources for language learning, and there may not be many Elder first-language speakers available in the first place in an urban setting.
Initiating a land-inspired project with a couple members of our Kwak̓wala learning group in Snuneymuxw (Nanaimo), posting videos/images with the Kwak̓wala word for the plant, animal, or outdoor life and also include an acknowledgement to the ancestral lands where the learning took place (or where the photo/video was taken).
A calendar project was initiated on Facebook involving a daily calendar share from one of the participating families including the date (day of the week, month, and date).
A weather project was initiated on Facebook, involving a few households from within our family.

Restoration of Kwakwaka’wakw Perspective and Falling in Love with the Language

Tłi'linux̱w, Sara Child (2016) suggests the restoration of Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw perspective is possible through the understanding of Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw concepts and land-based learning.
“our distinct language feeds our view of the world and our way of being, it is interwoven with culture, is vital to our personal and collective wellness and is integral to who we are as Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw” (p. 1).
Tłi'linux̱w be- lieves language learning on the ancestral lands of the learner will have restorative benefits for the mind, body, and spirit and will further lead to an authentic understanding of Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw perspective.
She describes six Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw concepts (2016), Sa̱nala (to be whole), Maya'xa̱la lax̱us ba̱k̓wine' (respect for self), $Mu’lanokw$ (we are grateful), $Awi’nakola$ (we are one with the land and the sea), Maya'xa̱lap̓a (respect for each other), and O'ma̱n's 'na̱m'a (we are one), to be used as the basis for Kwak̓wala learning and leading to a restoration of a Kwakwaka’wakw way of seeing the world.
These Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw concepts are examples of the beauty found in the Kwak̓wala language and exemplify the Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw worldview.
T̓łat̓łakuł shares, "speaking Kwak'wala is not just about having translations of things I want to say in English but that I can understand the Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw way of seeing the world”(p. 1), thus, speaking to the importance of gaining an understanding of worldview as part of language learning.
Point of significance in the language learning journey was the realization that the way we ask someone “how is your day?” is the same as how we ask about the weather, reflecting and teaching the connection between our well-being and the natural world.

Conclusion

This paper explored urban Indigenous language-learning with a particular focus on the Kwakwa̱ka̱ 'wakw Nation and Kwak̓wala language.
Urban language initiatives offer Indigenous peoples the opportunity to learn language, connect with others, and strengthen their identity.
There are many challenges for urban language learners but also positive influences, strategies working well, and possibilities for the future.
Leading strategies at present are the combined efforts of the Mentor-Apprentice program with other community programming initiatives and the use of social media platforms such as Facebook.
Indigenous language revitalization seemingly contributes to the restoration of Indigenous ways of being, and land-based learning offers a possibility for this.
Engaging with the ancestral language of the land one is on increases the likelihood of learning and understanding worldview.
Language learning has transformative properties empowering a learner to “feel the language.”