The Decline of the Restoration, the Second Republic, and the Spanish Civil War
The Regency of María Cristina and the Crisis of ‘98
The political landscape of Spain at the end of the 19th century was defined by the regency of Queen María Cristina, who acted as regent while her son, Alfonso XIII, was a child. This period began in 1885 and was marked by the significant "Crisis of ‘98." In 1898, Spain lost its final overseas colonies—Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines—following the US-Spain war. During an era characterized by rampant European imperialism, the loss of these territories was viewed as a profound national tragedy, signaling the end of the Spanish Empire.
In response to this crisis, a movement known as Regenerationism (regeneracionismo) emerged. Led by intellectuals such as Joaquín Costa and prominent politicians like the Liberal leader Canalejas and the Conservative leader Maura, the movement's core objectives were to dignify Spanish politics and modernize both society and culture. The movement sought to address the systemic failures exposed by the colonial losses and to reform the nation's stagnant political structures.
The Constitutional Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902–1923)
Alfonso XIII assumed the throne in 1902 upon coming of age. He maintained the political framework established by the Constitution of 1876, including the "turnismo" system, which involved a traditional alternation of power between the Liberal and Conservative parties. Two notable figures led the government during this transition: Maura, who attempted to reform electoral laws and local government to end corruption and "caciquismo" (political bossism), and Canalejas, who focused on social reforms. A particularly controversial measure introduced by Canalejas was the ley del candado (Law of the Padlock), which restricted the formation of new religious orders.
However, the traditional party system faced a growing crisis. Nationalist parties in Cataluña (the Regionalist League) and the Basque Country (Basque Nationalist Party) gained support from the local bourgeoisie, while the middle and working classes turned toward republican parties and the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party). Large trade unions, such as the UGT and CNT, grew in strength, leading to several major crises starting in 1909. The Tragic Week (1909) saw a popular insurrection in Barcelona against sending working-class troops to fight in Morocco, a conflict the rich could avoid by paying a fee. This protest was met with violent government repression.
Triple Crises of 1917 and Radicalisation
The year 1917 marked a peak in social and political instability as three distinct problems converged. First, military personnel formed Juntas de Defensa to protest the promotion system. Second, a Parliamentary Assembly in Barcelona demanded autonomy for Cataluña. Third, trade unions called a general strike that was subsequently crushed by the army with great brutality. These events demonstrated the increasing fragility of the Restoration system.
Between 1918 and 1923, worker movements underwent radicalization, driven by economic hardship and the ideological influence of the Russian Revolution. In Andalucía, the dire living and working conditions of the peasantry led to the trienio bolchevique (1918–1920), a period of intense social unrest. During this time, business owners frequently employed gunmen for protection against activists, while the government continued to use harsh repression to maintain order.
The Dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923–1930)
The military failure known as the Disaster of Annual in 1921, where numerous Spanish soldiers died during the war in Morocco, accelerated the collapse of the parliamentary system. An investigation into military negligence threatened high-ranking officials. Before the findings were confirmed, General Miguel Primo de Rivera launched a coup d’état in 1923 with the approval of King Alfonso XIII. Primo de Rivera established a military dictatorship, suspended the 1876 Constitution, dissolved parliament, and banned all political parties and trade unions.
Supported by the international economic prosperity of the 1920s, the dictatorship focused on domestic industry through high tariffs on imports and government aid to large corporations. The state established major monopolies, including the Compañía Telefónica Nacional de España and CAMPSA, which held exclusive rights over petroleum and gasoline. After the successful Alhucemas landing in 1925, the war in Morocco concluded in 1927. However, increasing opposition from intellectuals, students, and nationalist groups led the King to withdraw his support in 1929. Primo de Rivera resigned in January 1930.
The Fall of the Monarchy and the Pact of San Sebastián
Following the dictator's resignation, Alfonso XIII attempted to return to constitutional normalcy by restoring the 1876 Constitution and calling for municipal elections in April 1931. By this time, however, the King was widely seen as an accomplice to the dictatorship. In August 1930, republican, socialist, and Catalan-nationalist politicians had signed the Pact of San Sebastián with the explicit goal of overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a republic based on national sovereignty.
The text of the Pact of San Sebastián denounced the "falsified suffrage" and "caciquismo" that supported a king who had violated the Constitution. The signatories aimed to "file the monarchy away in the archives of history" and establish a Republic represented by a Constituent Assembly. On April 12, 1931, while monarchists won overall in municipal elections, republicans dominated the major cities. Alfonso XIII chose to go into exile, and the Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931, with a provisional government led by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora.
The Constitution of 1931
The Second Republic established a new legal framework via the Constitution of 1931, which defined Spain as a democratic and non-confessional republic. Article 1 declared that "Spain is a democratic republic of workers of all classes," where power emanated from the people. Key features included the recognition of municipal and regional autonomy, the abolition of an official state religion (Article 3), and the subjection of religious confessions to special laws (Article 26).
The constitution was progressive for its time, granting citizens aged and older equal electoral rights (Article 36), which introduced female suffrage. It also recognized the right to divorce by mutual agreement (Article 43) and guaranteed freedom of conscience and expression. Furthermore, it established a division of power between the Congress of Deputies, the President of the Republic, and independent courts. Despite its advancements, the constitution lacked consensus across the political spectrum, creating a tense political atmosphere from the outset.
The Bienio Reformista (1931–1933)
During the first two years of the Republic, known as the Bienio Reformista, Manuel Azaña served as Prime Minister. The government launched a suite of modernization reforms. The Agrarian Reform of September 1932 aimed to redistribute land to peasants by expropriating large, uncultivated estates through the Instituto de Reforma Agraria (IRA). However, limited funding for the IRA led to unfulfilled expectations and conflicts with peasants.
Military reforms required officers to swear loyalty to the Republic, and regional autonomy was granted to Cataluña in 1932. Educational reforms were particularly ambitious, opening 13,000 new schools in two years to provide free, secular education for all. The government created the Patronato de Misiones Pedagógicas in 1931 to bring libraries, theater, and films to rural areas, involving intellectuals like Federico García Lorca and María Zambrano. Despite these efforts, the government faced a failed coup led by General Sanjurjo in 1932 and violent clashes, such as the repression of a peasant uprising in Casas Viejas in 1933.
The Bienio Conservador and the Revolution of 1934
Following Azaña's resignation in September 1933, right-wing forces coalesced into the CEDA (Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas) led by José María Gil Robles. Although CEDA won the most seats, Alejandro Lerroux of the centrist Radical Party was appointed Prime Minister with CEDA support. This period, the Bienio Conservador, was characterized by the reversal or halting of previous reforms, including amendments to labor and agrarian laws and an amnesty for participants in Sanjurjo's failed coup.
In October 1934, when Lerroux included three CEDA ministers in his cabinet, the left launched a general strike. In Asturias, this escalated into a full-scale social insurrection where workers occupied mining areas; the military brutally repressed the movement. Simultaneously, Lluís Companys proclaimed a Catalan State within a Spanish Federal Republic, leading to the abolition of the Generalitat and the imprisonment of Catalan leaders. A subsequent corruption scandal in the Radical Party eventually brought down the government, leading to new elections in February 1936.
The Popular Front and the Outbreak of War
The elections of February 1936 were won by the Popular Front, a broad coalition of left-wing parties. While they resumed the reforms and granted amnesty to the 1934 prisoners, social unrest escalated. Revolutionary positions gained ground within the UGT and anarchist circles, while the right crystallized around leaders like Calvo Sotelo. On July 12, 1936, right-wing gunmen killed Lieutenant Castillo, a republican officer. In retaliation, his comrades assassinated Calvo Sotelo on July 13. This event acted as the catalyst for a long-planned military rebellion.
On July 17, 1936, the rebellion began in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco, spreading to the mainland the following day. Led by Generals Sanjurjo, Franco, and Mola, the coup was supported by Carlists, monarchists, Falangists, and a large portion of the Church. The failure of the coup in many major cities resulted in a division of Spain: the Republican zone (controlling industrial areas, Madrid, and the east) and the Rebel zone (controlling agricultural regions in the north and west). The rebels established a central command known as the Junta de Defensa Nacional in Burgos, eventually naming Franco Generalísimo and head of state.
The Progress of the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)
The conflict evolved through several major stages. Initially, rebel troops from Morocco advanced toward Madrid, but were stalled by the arrival of the International Brigades and Soviet military aid, as well as Republican victories at the Battle of Jarama and the Battle of Guadalajara in early 1937. Between April and October 1937, focus shifted to the Northern Front. This stage saw the infamous bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion on April 26, 1937. By late 1937, the rebels secured the industrial resources of the north (Bilbao, Santander, and Asturias).
In the final stage (October 1937 to April 1939), the Republic attempted a desperate counter-offensive across the Ebro River in July 1938. The Republican defeat in the Battle of the Ebro exhausted their forces. The rebels took Barcelona in January 1939 and Madrid in March 1939. The war officially ended on April 1, 1939. Internationally, while the UK and France promoted a non-intervention agreement signed by countries, it was largely ignored. The rebels received extensive aid from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republic was supported by the USSR and the International Brigades.
Life During the War and its Consequences
Civilian life during the war was marked by physical danger and systemic deprivation. Cities like Madrid and Barcelona suffered constant bombings, forcing residents into shelters. Food scarcity was acute, especially in the Republican zone due to expropriations and the loss of currency value. Rationing led to a rampant black market, and some civilians survived on items such as orange peels and beetroot leaves. Both sides engaged in reprisals; "taking them for a walk" (paseo) became a euphemism for Summary executions based on ideological hatred.
The human and economic costs were devastating. Studies estimate between and deaths, of which occurred in combat and from repression. An additional to people were executed in the post-war period. Massive displacement occurred, with approximately republican refugees crossing into France in 1939 and roughly going into exile in Mexico. Economically, industrial production fell by , agricultural production fell by , and livestock levels were halved, while roughly homes were destroyed.