Ethno-Historical and Political Survey of Nigeria

Archaeological and Pre-historical Foundations of Nigeria

• Earliest demographic evidence originates from Nok (Plateau State) artifacts radiocarbon dated to c. $39,000 \text{ B.C.}$.

• Late Stone Age sites ($15,000 \text{ B.C.}$ - $500 \text{ B.C.}$) include Mejiro cave (Oyo State), and rock shelters at Rop (Plateau State), Daima (Borno State), and Iwo Eleru (Ondo State).

• The Iwo Eleru human skeleton is the earliest Homo Sapiens yet excavated in West Africa.

• Linguistic evidence suggests most ethnic groups evolved by $500 \text{ A.D.}$, appearing in present locations by $1500$.

The Northern Zone: Kanem-Borno, Hausaland, and the Fulani

• Kanem-Borno: Established c. $9 \text{th}$ century by the Saifawa dynasty under the founder Saif. The ruler held the title Mai.

• Mai Idris Aloma (d. c. $1603$) neutralized external threats and established a centralized administration.

• Hausaland: Traditions cite founder Bayajidda from Baghdad. The Hausa Bakwai (legitimate states) include Daura, Katsina, Kano, Rano, Zazzua, Gobir, and Biram.

• The Hausa Banza (bastard states) include Zamfara, Kebbi, Gwari, Yauri, Nupe, Jukun, and Yoruba (Oyo).

• Fulani: Migrated from the Senegal River valley from the $12 \text{th}$ century. Divided into sedentary "Town Fulani" (Muslim) and nomadic "Cattle Fulani" (animist).

The Central Zone: Nupe, Igala, and Jukun Polities

• Nupe: Founded by Tsoede (Edegi) by the end of the $16 \text{th}$ century. The ruler is titled Etsu.

• Igala: The ruler is titled Atta. Foundation attributed to figures like Abutu Eje; influenced neighboring Idoma, Kakanda, and Igbo groups.

• Jukun: Referred to as Kwararafa in the Kano Chronicle. Established a confederacy under the Aku of Wukari in the lower Benue region by the mid-$18 \text{th}$ century.

The Western Zone: Yoruba, Edo, and Itsekiri Societies

• Yoruba: Share a common origin from Ile-Ife under progenitor Oduduwa. The Oyo kingdom was established by Oranmiyan (Oranyan) and peaked under Alafin Abiodun ($1774$ - $1789$).

• Edo: The Benin kingdom established the Eweka dynasty in the $13 \text{th}$ century. Reached peak power in the $15 \text{th}$ and $16 \text{th}$ centuries under Obas like Ewuare and Esigie.

• Itsekiri: Kingdom founded by Iginua, a son of the Oba of Benin, in the $15 \text{th}$ century.

The Eastern Zone: Ijo, Efik, and Igbo Organizations

• Ijo: Settled in the Niger Delta in wards (polo) and households (wari). The titular head, Amanyanabo, evolved into a political official via Atlantic trade.

• Efik: Four major settlements collectively called Calabar. Political authority was exercised through the Ekpe society; the titular head was the Obong.

• Igbo: Characterized by non-centralized autonomous villages governed by the Amala (council of elders). Integrated by mechanisms like the Arochukwu oracle (Ibinu Ukpabi).

British Colonial Penetration and Administration

• Penetration occurred via explorers, missionaries, traders, and military invaders (e.g., annexation of Lagos in $1861$ and conquest of Benin in $1897$).

• Strategies included deceptive treaties and the "divide-and-rule" formula.

• Indirect Rule: Frederick Lugard utilized traditional rulers (Emirs in the North, Warrant Chiefs in the South-East) to minimize costs and personnel requirements.

Constitutional Evolution and the Struggle for Independence

• Clifford Constitution ($1922$): Introduced the elective principle.

• Richard Constitution ($1946$): Established regional Houses of Assembly for North, West, and East.

• Macpherson Constitution ($1951$): Created a central House of Representatives.

• Lyttleton Constitution ($1954$): Introduced formal federalism and regional autonomy.

• Independence was attained on October $1$, $1960$, with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as Prime Minister.

Military Interventions and the Nature of Rule

• First coup (January $15, 1966$) masterminded by Major C. K. Nzeogwu. Major General Aguiyi Ironsi became Head of State.

• Subsequent regimes: Yakubu Gowon ($1966$ - $1975$), Muritala Mohammed ($1975$ - $1976$), Olusegun Obasanjo ($1976$ - $1979$), Muhammadu Buhari ($1983$ - $1985$), Ibrahim Babangida ($1985$ - $1993$), Sanni Abacha ($1993$ - $1998$), and Abdulsalam Abubakar ($1998$ - $1999$).

• Transition to civilian rule occurred in $1979$ (Shehu Shagari) and $1999$ (Olusegun Obasanjo).

The Role of Nigerian Women in Politics

• Pre-colonial: Notable leaders included Queen Amina of Zazzau, Moremi of Ile-Ife, and Queen Idia of Benin.

• Nationalist Era: Aba Women's Revolt ($1929$) challenged the Warrant Chief system. Alimotu Pelewura led the Lagos Market Women's Association.

• Post-WWII: Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti challenged the Alake of Abeokuta over taxation. Margaret Ekpo and Alhaja Gambo Sawaba campaigned for enfranchisement and human rights.

Patterns of Economic Growth and Industrialization

• Agriculture: Post-independence engine of growth ($60\%$ of GDP in the $1960s$). Declined following the emergence of crude oil.

• Oil Sector: Discovered in commercial quantities at Oloibiri ($1956$). Nigeria joined OPEC in $1971$. Oil accounts for c. $95\%$ of export earnings and $80\%$ of government revenue.

• Industrialization: Adopted Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI). Faced constraints including poor infrastructure (NEPA), corruption, and high production costs.

Evolution of Nigeria's Foreign Relations

• Balewa Era ($1960$ - $1966$): Pro-West orientation and membership in the Commonwealth.

• Gowon Era ($1966$ - $1975$): Shifted toward non-alignment during the Civil War; spearheaded the formation of ECOWAS in $1975$.

• Muritala/Obasanjo Era ($1975$ - $1979$): Afro-centric policy; active support for liberation movements (e.g., MPLA in Angola).

• Babangida/Abacha Eras ($1985$ - $1998$): Economic diplomacy followed by international isolation under Abacha after the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa in $1995$.