Study Notes on Nationalism and Unification in Europe

Nationalism/Unification

Causes of Nationalism

  • Congress of Vienna (1815)
    • Aimed to restore power dynamics back to pre-Napoleonic times.
    • Attempted to establish stability and balance within Europe by reinforcing historical boundaries and power structures.

Overview of European Ethnic Groups (c. 1800)

  • Portugal: Diverse ethnic identities including Irish, Welsh, English, Scots, etc.
  • French, Spaniards, Catalans, Corsicans, Danes, Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians, White Russians, Poles, Czechs, Austrians, Slovaks, Hungarians, Romanians, Albanians, Bulgarians, Greeks, and Ukrainians.

Europe in 1812

  • British Control
    • Established dominance within European territorial systems.
  • Napoleonic Empire
    • Composed of dependent states and allies.

Notable Political Entities in 1815

  • Prussia, Austrian Empire, France, Piedmont-Sardinia, Russia, and various German states are crucial actors in the continental power play following the Napoleonic wars.

Nationalism and Political Identity in Austria

  • The redrawing of the map of Europe created conflicts among various groups vying for land and autonomy.
    • Claim to nationhood based on shared language, customs, values, and religion.

Italy's Unification

  • The Italian Peninsula comprised numerous kingdoms and principalities, united by a shared language and religion (predominantly Catholic).
  • Risorgimento
    • A cultural movement emphasizing national identity and the removal of foreign dominance.
    • Key figure: Giuseppe Mazzini, leading the underground Young Italian Movement.

Revolts and Political Changes (1846-1871)

  • Inspired by earlier revolutions in France and Germany, rebellions erupted throughout Northern Italy.
  • Key figures include King Charles Albert, Pope Pius IX, Mazzini, and Garibaldi.
  • The Roman Republic was declared but ultimately faced military opposition.
Key Events of 1848
  • January 9, 1848: Revolt in Sicily forces constitutional reforms by Ferdinand.
  • March 18, 1848: The Five Days in Milan lead to rebellion against Austrian rule.
  • Piedmont-Sardinia emerges as a nucleus for unification efforts post-Austrian control.
  • Camillo di Cavour becomes a central figure in navigating diplomatic relations, especially with France.

Italian Unification Process

  • Cavour's negotiation with Napoleon III leads to military successes against Austria in 1859, establishing Piedmont-Sardinia’s dominance in Northern Italy.
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi uses military force (with his 1000 Red Shirts) to support the unification process, culminating in the cession of territories to Cavour for a unified monarchy.

Challenges Post-Unification

  • Southern Italy faced economic difficulties; high taxes and inflation were pressing issues.
  • A notable imbalance in political representation given a population of 22 million yet only 500,000 eligible voters.

Germany's Path to Unification (1815-1871)

  • 1834: Formation of the Zollverein, a customs union that enhanced trade among German states while excluding Austria.
  • Political fragmentation with 39 distinct states hindered unity, complicated by religious and cultural differences.

Rise of Prussian Power and Bismarck

  • Otto von Bismarck used nationalist sentiments to consolidate power.
  • His letter from April 1856 outlines the struggle for supremacy between Prussia and Austria.
  • Military strength was fortified against Austrian influence amidst economic and political discontent.

Military Conflicts Leading to Unification

  • Danish War (1864): Prussia and Austria reclaim territories from Denmark; major preparations for unification.
  • Austro-Prussian War (1866): Results in Austria’s exclusion from German affairs following disputes over territory administration.
  • Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): French provocation enables rapid unification, with Southern German states rallying to join Prussia against a common enemy in France.

Establishment of the German Empire

  • Proclamation in January 1871 at the Palace of Versailles marks unification.
  • Wilhem I becomes the German Kaiser, overseeing a constitutional monarchy where voting rights are limited to men aged 25 and older.

Political Tensions with Catholicism

  • Kulturkampf (1871-1878): Aimed to reduce Roman Catholic Church power, asserting state dominance in educational and religious matters, signaling ongoing societal tensions.
  • Concessions from the new Pope in 1878 paved the way for reconciliation with the Catholic population.

Industrial Growth and Infrastructure Development

  • Railroads: Significant growth from 1850-1890, pivotal in unifying the national market and promoting economic cohesion.
  • Expansive infrastructure investments led to a more integrated German state and economic powerhouse.

Russian Nationalism and Reforms

  • RUSSIFICATION: A policy aimed at enforcing Russian culture and customs upon minority populations, creating tension in regions like Poland and Finland.
  • Alexander II’s Reforms: The emancipation of serfs and establishment of local governance through ZEMSTVOS signify important shifts towards modernization, although faced backlash and radical opposition in subsequent years.

Critical Events in Russian History (1905 and Beyond)

  • Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905): Marked a turning point in civil rights and government responses, culminating in establishing the Duma, despite the revolution's failure due to military loyalty, foreign support, and lack of unified goals among revolutionaries.

Austria-Hungary's Dual Monarchy

  • Established after Austria's defeat by Prussia; Hungary acquires significant autonomy under Francis Joseph I, leading to a unique governmental structure balancing agricultural and industrial interests between Austria and Hungary.

The Balkans and Emerging Tensions

  • Regions like Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, and Greece gained independence from the Ottomans, triggering cultural conflicts and geopolitical tensions, significantly impacting future European history leading to WWI.