rels 200 - exam 1

Academic Study of Religion: Conditions and Reflexivity

• Conditions for the Academic Study of Religion (Sindima, 2009):
  • Tolerance
  • Openness
  • Truth
  • Critical Reading
  • Critical Thinking
  • Critical Learning
• Reflexivity / Recognize Your Subjectivity
  • You are influenced by a variety of factors
  • Understanding these factors is helpful in the study of religion

Defining Religion: Major Approaches

• How do you define religion? (Discussion prompt)
• Substantive Definition of Religion
  • Defining religion in terms of its believed contents
  • Example: “Religion is the belief in an ever-living God” (James Martineau, $1805-1900$)
• Experiential-Expressive Definitions (George Lindbeck)
  • Conception of religion as a way of experiencing reality
• Key Experiential-Expressive Statements
  • Schleiermacher: “the feeling of absolute dependence” is the essence of religion
  • Otto: “Religion is that which grows out of and gives expression to, experience of the holy in its various aspects.”
• Functional Definition of Religion
  • Religion defined by its function for a group in addressing ultimate problems
  • Milton Yinger: “Religion can be defined as beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with ultimate problems of human life.”
  • Frederick Streng: “Religion is a means to ultimate transformation.”
• Causal/Reductionist Definitions
  • Freud: religion as comparable to a childhood neurosis
  • Marx: religion as the sigh of the oppressed and the opium of the people; an illusory sun around man until he revolves around himself
• Can We Define Religion at All?
  • Cantwell Smith: religion is a concept imposed by Western scholars on varied phenomena; it is divisive
  • Debate: “Religion” as a Western construct that may not capture non-Western or plural phenomena
• Analyzing How “Religion” Is Deployed
  • Craig Martin (2017): scholars should avoid taking sides in contested battles; focus on how different definitions serve different social/political interests in varying contexts
• Family Resemblances (Wittgenstein)
  • Members share traits but no single essence; list of traits may overlap differently across traditions
• Ninian Smart (1973)
  • The study of religion lacks clear-cut boundaries; any definition will involve family resemblance; some phenomena bear greater/lesser resemblance to religion
• The Nature of a Religion (Ninian Smart, 1989)
  • Seven dimensions: Practical/Ritual; Experiential/Emotional; Narrative/Mythic; Doctrinal/Philosophical; Ethical/Legal; Social/Institutional; Material
• Prothero’s Approach to Studying the Religions (Prothero, 2010)
  • A problem; a solution to that problem (the religious goal); a technique for moving from problem to solution; and an exemplar who charts this path
  • Example: Christianity
  • Problem: sin
  • Solution/Goal: salvation
  • Technique: faith and good works
  • Exemplars: saints in Catholic/Orthodox and faithful individuals in Protestantism
• Working Definition of Religion (James C. Livingston)
  • “Religion is that system of activities and beliefs directed toward that which is perceived to be of sacred value and transforming power”
  • Guidelines for a good definition:
  • Avoid narrowness and vagueness
  • Include both distinctiveness and generality
  • Not confused with causal explanations
  • Not reductive or prejudicial
  • Acknowledge that no definition is immutable

Core Concepts of Religion: The Sacred, Deity, Sign, Symbol, Ritual, and Myth

• The Sacred
  • A transcendent referent; spiritual beings; cosmic laws; places/time/people; ideals/values
  • Key ideas: axis mundi; hierophany (Mircea Eliade)
  • Numinous experiences: mysterium tremendum and mysterium fascinans (Rudolf Otto)
  • Examples include sacred spaces like Mount Zion/Jerusalem
• Deity
  • God, gods, and supernatural beings
  • Two related concepts: Immanence and Transcendence
  • Question: Do all religions believe in a deity?
• Polytheism, Henotheism, Pantheism, Dualism, Monotheism, Panentheism

Sign, Symbol, Ritual, and Myth

• Sign: concrete, explicitly understood meaning
• Symbol: deeper, multivalent meanings
• Ritual: symbols in action
• Myth: stories that convey symbolically meaningful truths
• Example: Christian Ichthys (symbolic fish)

Cosmogony, Cosmology, Eschatology, Etiology

• Cosmogony: theories about the origins of the universe
• Cosmology: descriptions of the universe from beginning to end
• Cosmogonic Myth: etiologies that explain origins
• Eschatology: studies of “last things” (end of the world, ultimate destiny)

Doctrines, Scripture, Ethics, Theodicy, and Soteriology

• Doctrine: attempt to systematize revelation through myth and ritual
• Scripture: sacred literature; oral and written; canonization processes; primary vs. secondary sacred texts (e.g., Koran vs. Hadith)
• Ethics: morals and practices grounded in sacred authority (books, cosmic law, or leaders)
• Theodicy: explanations for the existence of evil; approaches include compensation, mystical participation, dualism, or self-caused suffering; proverb: “The Just Upright Man is laughed to scorn.”
• Soteriology: paths and goals of salvation/liberation (what saves us)

Religious Functionaries

• Functional roles vary across traditions; present in every religion
• Training and ordination; monastic traditions (Christianity, Buddhism)
• Examples of functionaries: Catholic priest, Buddhist monk, Jewish rabbi, Islamic imam, Hindu guru, Vodou houngan, Confucian scholar-officials, shamans

Hinduism: Part 1 — Introduction and Core Concepts

• Hinduism at a Glance (Prothero, 2020)
  • Problem: samsara (unsatisfactory cycle of life, death, rebirth, redeath)
  • Solution: moksha (release from the cycle)
  • Techniques: karma (action), jnana (wisdom), bhakti (devotion)
  • Exemplars: yogis, renouncers, poet-saints

Hindu History and Development

• Indus Valley Civilization (ca. $3000 ext{--}1500 ext{ BCE}$)
• Vedic Religion
• Classical Hinduism
• Hinduism in the Modern World (next lecture)

Indus Valley Civilization: Key Features

• Goddess worship
• Centrality of bathing and ritual purity
• Emphasis on water as ritual purity; prominent animals
• Possible early yoga/meditation practices
• Map cues: Saraswati River; sites like Mehrgarh, Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro

The Great Migration and Aryan Influence

• Aryan migrations and the impact of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralists
• Language family: Indo-European
• Flow of ancestry into the Indian subcontinent; formation of early Vedic culture
• Vedic deities (devas) and ritual drink Soma
• Emergence of the caste system

Indo-European Languages and Deities (Examples)

• Sanskrit; Latin; Greek; English
• Deva/Devi; Theos; gnosis (knowledge)

The Vedas

• Rigveda (sacred hymns)
• Yajurveda (ritual formulas)
• Samaveda (melodies and chants)
• Atharvaveda (hymns and mantras)
• Example hymn: to Agni (fire god)

Vedic Religion and Cosmology

• Triloka: Svarga (heaven), Bhuloka (Earth), Naraka (hell)
• Rta: unifying principle of order
• Devas: Indra, Agni, Varuna; Asuras (demigods/titans)
• Soma: ritual drink; associated with Indra
• Atman: the soul; lack of consensus on afterlife in the Vedas

Caste System in Vedic Era

• Varna categories: Brahmin, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras
• Dalits: outside/independent of the varna system

Vedic Religion Characteristics

• Emphasis on ritual over doctrine
• Household and shamanic practices; Srauta (fire sacrifice)
• Ritual purity; cosmic maintenance

Classical Hinduism (ca. 800 BCE)

• Axial Age ( $800 ext{ BCE} ext{--} ext{200 BCE}$ )
• Shift from cosmic maintenance to personal enlightenment and transformation

Caste System II and Social Rules

• Varna and Jati; marital restrictions; dietary restrictions; ritual purity
• Twice-Born (Dwija) status
• Laws of Manu
• Dalits and exemptions from dharma

The Stages of Life (Asramas)

• Male: Student → Householder → Forest-dweller → Sannyasa
• Female: Girlhood → Householder → Widowhood

The Post-Vedic Texts (800 BCE–300 CE)

• Brahmanas: prose commentary on Vedas; ritual meanings
• Aranyakas: esoteric meditations on sacrifices
• Upanishads: philosophical exploration of ultimate Reality behind Vedic ritual
• Epics (300 BCE–300 CE): Mahabharata, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana

The Upanishads and Central Concepts

• Upanishad meaning: “sit down near”
• Focus: why of ritual (philosophical) rather than how
• Key concepts expounded: $ext{Samsara}, ext{ Karma}, ext{ Brahman}, ext{ Dharma}, ext{ Yoga}$

Samsara, Karma, Brahman, Dharma, Moksha

• Samsara: transmigration/rebirth/re-death
• Karma: action and consequences; fuels samsara
• Brahman: ultimate reality; not to be confused with Brahmin; Vedanta debates about Atman–Brahman unity
• Dharma: duty; caste-specific duties; Laws of Manu; implications for Dalits
• Moksha: liberation from samsara; overcoming desire and ignorance; union with Brahman; three paths of liberation (marga):
  • $ext{Karma-marga}$: way of action
  • $ext{Jnana-marga}$: way of wisdom
  • $ext{Bhakti-marga}$: way of devotion

Yoga: The Path to Union

• Etymology: “yoke” or unite
• First mentioned in the Rigveda; elaborated in the Upanishads and Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
• $ext{Eight limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga)}:$
  • $1. ext{ Yama} \ 2. ext{ Niyama} \ 3. ext{ Asana} \ 4. ext{ Pranayama} \ 5. ext{ Pratyahara} \ 6. ext{ Dharana} \ 7. ext{ Dhyana} \ 8. ext{ Samadhi}$

The Gods of Classical Hinduism and The Trimurti

• Embraces both polytheism and monotheism; ~$330{,}000{,}000$ gods and goddesses
• The Trimurti (the Divine Masculine): Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva
• Brahma: creator; rarely worshipped (myth about lying to find the top of a pillar of fire)
• Vishnu: preserver; Vaishnavism; 10 avatars: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Kalki
• Shiva: destroyer; Nataraja (Lord of the Dance)

The Goddess/Divine Feminine and Margas to Liberation

• Tridevi: Lakshmi (wealth), Parvati (power), Saraswati (art/learning)
• Mahadevi (The Divine Feminine) aka Devi/Shakti
• Margas (Paths to Liberation):
  • $ext{Karma-marga}$: Way of Action
  • $ext{Jnana-marga}$: Way of Wisdom
  • $ext{Bhakti-marga}$: Way of Devotion

Karma-marga: Action and Duty

• Discharge duties with no selfish motive
• Emphasis on caste restrictions and obligations
• Equanimity through ego-less action
• Proximate goal: advantageous rebirth
• Example: Bhagavad Gita depiction of Shiva and Arjuna

Jnana-marga: Wisdom and Renunciation

• Emerged after the Vedic period with the Upanishads
• Emphasis on realizing the unity with Brahman
• Practices: yogic disciplines; renunciation (Sannyasis)

Bhakti-marga: Devotion

• The easier/equalitarian path; developed 6th–9th century CE
• Moksha through external help and personal relationship with the divine
• Practices: prayers, poems, pilgrimage, and kirtan (shared recitation)
• Devotional focus on Rama, Hanuman; example of Neem Karoli Baba (1900–1973) and his western devotees (Steve Jobs, Ram Dass, Krishna Das); Seva Foundation (founded 1978)

The Guru, Puja, Pilgrimage, and Festivals

• The Guru: spiritual teacher; traditionally the living embodiment of spiritual principles; transmission of Vedic knowledge
• Puja: ceremonial worship of deity/image; offerings (fruit/flowers), fire, home or temple settings; daily or calendar-based rituals; source of meritorious karma
• Pilgrimage and Darshan: meritorious access to sacred sites/objects/people; “Darshan” conveys spiritual benefits by viewing sacred objects/places
• Festivals: Diwali, Holi, Kumbh Mela

Hinduism in the West

• Introduction to the West via literature and transcendentalists (Emerson, Thoreau)
• Vivekananda and the 1893 World Parliament of Religions
• Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and Transcendental Meditation (TM): secularized marketing; mantra meditation; “fourth state of consciousness”
• ISKCON (Bhakti movement) and Bhakti-marga emphasis on Krishna devotion
• Temple Hinduism: post-1965 immigration act (Hart-Celler Act); ~850 temples in the U.S.; examples like Hindu American Temple & Cultural Center (Morganville, NJ)

Buddhism: Part 1 — Core Inheritance and Rejection

• What Buddhism inherited from Hindu contexts: law of karma, samsara, reincarnation, dharma, moksha (conceptual parallels)
• What Buddhism rejected or redefined: Vedas, priesthood, caste system (to some extent), concept of atman (eternal soul), Brahman; traditional view of the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu is contested in some traditions

The Life of the Buddha

• Siddhartha Gautama (Shakyamuni, Tathagata, Buddha)
• Traditional dates: $563 ext{ BCE} ext{--} 483 ext{ BCE}$
• Birth: in the Indian subcontinent region now Nepal (Lumbini)
• Early life in the palace; the Four Sights (old man, sick man, corpse, wandering ascetic) illustrate suffering and impermanence
• The Great Going Forth: leaves palace; practices extreme asceticism for six years; discovers the Middle Way
• Enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree at Bodhgaya after Mara’s temptations; receives the Three Knowledges (past lives, karma, release from attachments)
• First Sermon in the Deer Park (Sarnath):
  • The Middle Way
  • The Four Noble Truths
  • The Noble Eightfold Path
  • Formation of the Sangha (monastic community): bhikkhu (monks) and bhikkhuni (nuns)

The Four Noble Truths

• 1) Suffering (dukkha) is inherent in life
• 2) The cause of suffering is craving/desire
• 3) There is a path to end suffering
• 4) The path is the Noble Eightfold Path
• Expanded analysis of dukkha:
  • Physical pain; suffering from change; sadness at loss; knowledge of death; unease due to impermanence; the pervasive suffering of conditioned existence
• Suffering exists in multiple worlds; even heavenly beings experience impermanence

The Causes of Suffering: Craving and Ignorance

• Craving for satisfaction, happiness, success; desire to avoid unpleasant conditions; selfish desire to gain happiness at others’ expense
• Not all craving is negative; craving for liberation and compassionate desire to help others are positive
• Craving arises from ignorance of the three marks of existence:
  • Impermanence (anicca)
  • Suffering (dukkha)
  • Not-Self (anatman)

Buddhist Cosmology and Realms

• Three realms plus other realms within Buddhist cosmology: Heavenly Realm, Human Realm, Asura Realm, Animal Realm, Hungry Ghost Realm, Hell Realm
• Realms extend into sensual, form, and formless planes; cycles of samsara continue until nirvana

The Path to Liberation

• Nirvana: cessation of craving; attainment of liberation while alive
• Parinirvana: final nirvana at the death of an enlightened being who is not reborn
• The Noble Eightfold Path (ethical conduct, mental discipline, wisdom):
  • Right View, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration
• Refuge and Precepts
  • The Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha): taking refuge
  • Five Precepts: non-harm, non-stealing, non-sexual misconduct, non-lying, non-intoxicants
• Monastic vows in various traditions: Theravada (227 for monks, 311 for nuns), Mahayana (250–253 for monks, 348–346 for nuns)

Theravada vs Mahayana (and Vajrayana) Dynamics

• Theravada (the Way of the Elders)
  • Pali Canon (Tipitaka); Buddha is not divine; ultimate goal is the Arhat; practice self-powered salvation
• Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle)
  • Emphasizes the Bodhisattva ideal; cosmic/universal salvation; emptiness (śūnyatā) and compassion for all beings
  • Bodhisattva vows: liberate all beings before achieving final nirvana
  • Celestial beings: Avalokiteshvara/Guanyin, Samantabhadra, Mahasthāmaprapta, Amitabha/Amitayus, Maitreya; Celestial Buddhas like Medicine Buddha
• Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle)
  • Esoteric Buddhism; Tibet; combines Mahayana ideals with tantric practices; secret teachings, mantras, mandalas, dharani
  • Lamas as teachers; potential reincarnations of predecessors

The Spread of Buddhism

• India: decline due to Muslim conquests (13th–16th centuries) but persisted regionally elsewhere
• East Asia and Southeast Asia: Mahayana predominates (Vietnam, China, Korea, Japan, etc.)
• Theravada: South and Southeast Asia (Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia)
• Vajrayana: Tibet and nearby regions

Buddhism in the East, West, and Notable Figures

• Buddhism in the East emphasizes devotion/pilgrimage and ritual life (Vesak, family shrines)
• Estimated global Buddhists: approximately $445{,}000{,}000$ adherents worldwide (Pew data, 2012; context: global landscape)
• Notable Western contributors and movements:
  • D. T. Suzuki (1870–1966)
  • Shunryu Suzuki (1904–1971)
  • Alan Watts (1915–1973)
  • Thich Nhat Hanh (1926–2022)
  • Soka Gakkai (lay Buddhist movement)
  • Buddhist Churches of America (BCA)
• Buddhism in the West: Zen/Chan; mindfulness diffusion; American Buddhist centers and media

Buddhist Practices and Cultural Expressions

• Devotion and ritual life in the East (
  • Vesak celebrations
  • Pilgrimage to sacred sites
  • Offerings, chants, and rituals)
• Western adaptations:
  • Zen/Chan practice influencing arts (haiku, rock gardens, martial arts)
  • Mindfulness as secular practice in contemporary contexts

Bonus: Four Places Associated with the Buddha’s Life (Common Exam Question)

• Lumbini: the birthplace
• Bodh Gaya: attainment of enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree
• Sarnath ( Deer Park): first sermon
• Kusinara/Kushinagar: Parinirvana (passing into final nirvana)