Human Geography

Arithmetic Density: Total population divided by total land area; shows population distribution.
Physiological Density: Population divided by arable (farmable) land; shows pressure on agricultural land.
Agricultural Density: Number of farmers divided by arable land; indicates farming efficiency.
Natural Increase Rate (NIR): Crude birth rate minus crude death rate; indicates population growth (excluding migration).
Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Number of births per 1,000 people per year.
Crude Death Rate (CDR): Number of deaths per 1,000 people per year.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime.

Formal Region: Defined by official boundaries or uniform characteristics (e.g., countries, states).
Functional Region: Defined by a central node and connections (e.g., a metro area or a TV broadcast region).
Perceptual (Vernacular) Region: Based on people’s beliefs or cultural identity (e.g., “The South” in the U.S.).

Geometric Boundary: Straight lines often based on latitude/longitude (e.g., U.S.-Canada border).
Physical Boundary: Natural features like rivers or mountains.
Cultural Boundary: Based on language, religion, or ethnicity.
Subsequent Boundary: Created after settlement based on cultural differences.
Superimposed Boundary: Imposed by external powers without regard to cultural patterns.
Relic Boundary: No longer used but still visible (e.g., Berlin Wall).

Relocation Diffusion: Spread of a feature through physical movement of people (e.g., migration).
Hierarchical Diffusion: Spread from a person/place of authority or influence (e.g., fashion from celebrities).
Contagious Diffusion: Rapid, widespread diffusion through a population (e.g., viral videos).
Stimulus Diffusion: Spread of an idea, even if the specific trait doesn't spread (e.g., McDonald’s adapting menus in India).

Indigenous Languages: Native languages spoken by original inhabitants of a region, often endangered; e.g., Quechua (Andes), Navajo (U.S. Southwest).
Language Diffusion: Languages spread through migration, conquest, trade, and colonization (e.g., Spanish in Latin America due to colonization).

Judaism: Monotheistic; originated in the Middle East; sacred text is the Torah; cultural hearth: Israel.
Christianity: Monotheistic; began with Jesus in the Middle East; sacred text is the Bible; spread via Roman Empire and colonialism.
Islam: Monotheistic; started with Prophet Muhammad in Mecca; sacred text is the Qur’an; spread through trade and conquest.
Buddhism: Non-theistic; began in India with Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha); spread via trade routes and missionaries.
Hinduism: Polytheistic; oldest major religion; began in India; based on dharma, karma, and reincarnation.
Sikhism: Monotheistic; originated in Punjab, India; combines elements of Hinduism and Islam; emphasizes equality and service.

Remote Sensing: Gathering data about Earth’s surface using satellites or aircraft.
Geocaching: GPS-based treasure hunting game using coordinates to find hidden items.
Mashup (Maps): A map that overlays different datasets (e.g., roads + weather + restaurants).
Map Projections: Ways to represent Earth’s surface; all distort shape, area, distance, or direction (e.g., Mercator, Robinson, Peters).

Sovereign State: A political unit with a defined territory, permanent population, government, and full control over internal and external affairs.
Nation-State: A state whose population shares a common culture and identity (e.g., Japan).
Multinational State: A state with multiple ethnic groups who retain cultural differences (e.g., Russia).
Multistate Nation: A nation spread across multiple states (e.g., the Kurds).
Supranational Organization: An alliance of multiple countries for common goals (e.g., EU, ASEAN, UN).
Asylum Seeker: A person fleeing their home country to seek protection in another due to danger or persecution.

EU (European Union): Political and economic union in Europe; promotes free movement of goods, services, and people.
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations): Promotes political and economic cooperation among Southeast Asian countries.
UN (United Nations): International organization that promotes peace, security, and cooperation.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): Military alliance for mutual defense between North America and Europe.
OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries): Coordinates oil production and prices among member states.

Agricultural Revolutions:
- First: Domestication of plants and animals (~10,000 years ago).
- Second: Mechanization during the Industrial Revolution (18th–19th century).
- Third (Green Revolution): Use of high-yield seeds, fertilizers, and tech (20th century).
Relation to Climate: Agriculture types (e.g., pastoralism, rice farming) depend heavily on temperature and rainfall.
Economies of Scale: Cost advantages from increased production (larger operations = lower per-unit costs).

Terroir: The influence of local environment (soil, climate, topography) on the taste and characteristics of food and drink, especially wine.

Nomadic Warrior Theory: Theory that Indo-European languages spread via Kurgan warriors from the Eurasian steppe through conquest (vs. the peaceful Anatolian farming theory).

Clustered: Homes/buildings grouped together (common in rural areas with shared services).
Dispersed: Spread-out settlements; common in agricultural regions.
Linear: Settlements along roads, rivers, or valleys.

Territorial Sea: Up to 12 nautical miles from shore; full sovereignty.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Up to 200 nautical miles; country controls marine resources.
High Seas: Areas beyond national jurisdiction.