Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making

Prototypes-a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow).

Schemas-a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation-interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

Accommodation-adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

Algorithms-a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics.

Heuristics-estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

Representativeness heuristic-judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

Availability heuristic-judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

Mental set-tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

Priming-the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

Framing-the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Gambler’s fallacy-the belief that the chances of something happening with a fixed probability become higher or lower as the process is repeated.

Sunk-cost fallacy- the idea that one must go through with something or continue one's investment even if it is hopeless or detrimental to oneself

Executive functions-Set of cognitive processes that help people regulate thoughts and actions to achieve goals.

Creativity-the ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking-expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

Convergent thinking-narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

Functional fixedness-a cognitive bias that limits a person's ability to use an object in more ways than it is traditionally used