Historical 'Isms' and European Intellectual Movements

Humanism and Christian Humanism in the Renaissance

Humanism represents the foundational outlook of the philosophical school during the Renaissance, marking a significant departure from the Scholasticism of the Middle Ages. This movement focused intensely on the seven liberal arts, with a particular emphasis on rhetoric. The core sentiment of Humanism is captured by the phrase "Man is the measure of all things," emphasizing man as opposed to God. Petrarch is considered a central figure and a theme of this movement. Christian Humanism, which is closely associated with the "Northern Renaissance," sought church reform without rejecting the institution or breaking from it entirely. It was significantly more religious than standard Humanism. Erasmus is heralded as the greatest Christian Humanist; he utilized a style modeled after the Latins and rejected the Middle Ages. Erasmus was deeply interested in behavior and morality, frequently using satire—most famously in his work In Praise of Folly—to expose the weaknesses, hypocrisy, and corruption of the clergy and the church. Despite his criticisms of the church, he talked extensively about peace and education and never totally rejected the religious institution.

Lutheranism and the Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther ($1483-1546$), a German monk and member of the church, initiated the Reformation due to his criticism of church corruption and superstition. In $1517$, he produced the Ninety-five Theses, a list of complaints primarily directed at Johann Tetzel, the monk in charge of selling indulgences. Luther initially sought a debate rather than a break with the church, but his views became increasingly radical. This led to the Diet of Worms, which served as his trial, after which he fled to Saxony under the protection of Frederick of Saxony. Lutheran beliefs emphasize the "priesthood of all believers," suggesting individuals do not need a priest to facilitate a personal relationship with God. Lutheranism posits that the Bible is the sole authority and that justification—or salvation—is achieved by faith alone. This doctrine argues that only deep faith and love for God are necessary for salvation, rendering church rituals, prayers, and sacraments secondary. Luther reduced the seven sacraments to only two: baptism and communion. Unlike other reformers, he did not view communion as merely symbolic; he believed God was present in the bread and wine because God is present everywhere. He opposed pilgrimages, fasts, masses, saints, monasticism, and clerical celibacy. Lutheranism appealed to German princes interested in "German particularism" and the seizure of church property. However, Luther was horrified by the Peasants' Revolt of $1524-1525$, despite the masses feeling empowered to stand up to authority based on his teachings.

Calvinism and Its Expansion

John Calvin ($1509-1564$), a French lawyer and priest exiled from France, settled in Geneva and was heavily influenced by Martin Luther. His seminal work, Institutes of the Christian Religion, provided the most comprehensive explanation of Protestant beliefs through logic and reason. Calvin believed the world was in a moral crisis and expressed worry over "good works" performed for the church; he sought structural simplicity and the assurance of reaching heaven. While Calvin shared Luther's opposition to clerical celibacy, monastic orders, and the necessity of priests, he developed distinct doctrines. He emphasized a personal relationship with God and the Bible as the only source of doctrine. Crucially, Calvin rejected transubstantiation, viewing communion as purely symbolic. He also rejected the authority of bishops.

Calvin's theology is often summarized by the acronym TULIP: T stands for Total Depravity, meaning man is full of sin and incapable of self-salvation; U stands for Unconditional Election, where God chooses the "elect" based on predestination rather than merit; L stands for Limited Atonement, meaning only the elect share in Christ’s sacrifice; I stands for Irresistible Grace, which asserts that those God chooses to save cannot resist His grace; and P stands for Perseverance of Saints, meaning the elect cannot lose their status. Calvinism had a universal, expansionist appeal that spread much further than Lutheranism. It reached Switzerland (Basel, Geneva, Zurich, Bern), Scotland via John Knox and the Presbyterians, France via the Huguenots, and England via the Puritans. These Puritans eventually fled to Holland and then to the New World.

Anglicanism and Anabaptism

Anglicanism was established by Henry VIII, the ruler of England, primarily because the Catholic Church would not allow him to divorce. Through the Act of Supremacy, he established the Anglican Church with the King as the head and all church property under government control. Though it remained similar to the Catholic Church initially, it became more Protestant under subsequent Tudor monarchs. In contrast, Anabaptism was a radical, "utopian" group that refused to fit into conventional society, rejecting taxes and military service. The Münster Anabaptists were an extremist wing that took over the city of Münster to establish a theocracy known as "New Jerusalem." They burned all books except the Bible, killed non-Anabaptists, abolished private property in favor of a barter system, and practiced polygamy.

The Catholic Counter-Reformation

In response to the challenges of Protestant reformers, the Catholic Church launched the "Counter Reformation" to defend itself and reform its own abuses. The Church utilized several tools, including the Inquisition—a church court for trying heretics (the Roman Inquisition notably did not use torture). The Catholic Index was created as a list of banned books that Catholics were prohibited from reading, including the works of Luther and Calvin. The Church also participated in the persecution of Jews, who were used as scapegoats and labeled as "murders of Christ." Usury, or charging interest on loans, was illegal for Christians, which restricted Jews to trade; however, this later shifted to charging exorbitant interest. The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, was organized by St. Ignatius Loyola as a group of scholarly priests tasked with spreading Catholicism and halting the Reformation. Laymen organized into confraternities, which were religious clubs or brotherhoods.

Direct reform and clarification occurred at the Council of Trent ($1545-1663$). The council reaffirmed the authority of the Pope and bishops, the seven sacraments, transubstantiation, the belief in purgatory, clerical celibacy, monasticism, and the veneration of saints. Very few doctrinal changes were made; however, the council affirmed that justification comes through faith AND works. It also limited the sale of indulgences, condemned pluralism and the poor behavior of bishops, established seminaries for training priests, and reformed monasteries.

Protestantism, Arminianism, and Political Structures

Protestantism generally refers to the movement against established Catholic doctrines, where religious reform frequently led to political reform. A significant conflict was the War of the League of Schmalkald ($1546-1555$), which pitted Protestant states against Catholic forces. This concluded with the Peace of Augsburg ($1555$), establishing that the religion of the ruler would be the religion of the people. It also included the Ecclesiastical Reservation, requiring princes to return seized property, though this was largely ineffective. Arminianism, associated with the $17 ext{th}$-century Dutch theologian Jacob Arminius, was a Protestant belief that opposed Calvin's absolute predestination and later influenced the Methodist movement.

Politically, Constitutionalism argued for government limited by the people through a constitution, which acted as a law for the government to prevent the abuse of rulers. This often took the form of a constitutional monarchy where the king obeyed a constitution drafted by the people. This stood in stark contrast to Absolutism, where the ruler held complete power as a "father" figure to the people. Key theorists included Thomas Hobbes (who argued people gave up all power to a monarch and had no right to revolt), Jean Bodin (Divine Right), and Bishop Bossuet (who tutored Louis XIV and argued that authority comes from God alone, not a contract). Statistics of absolute monarchs include Louis XIV, Peter the Great, and Charles V of Austria. These regimes were characterized by centralized power, weakened opposition, large standing armies, and the belief that religious unity created national strength.

Liberalism and Conservatism in the 19th Century

Classical Liberalism was an outlook supported by the middle classes (business and professional) who viewed themselves as modern and enlightened. They believed human progress was inevitable and had faith in man’s capacity for self-control and self-rule. Politically, they favored written constitutions and legislative processes, but they opposed universal male suffrage (UMS) due to fears of "mob rule" and were against women's suffrage. They followed the Utilitarian principle of the "greatest good for the greatest number." Economically, they supported laissez-faire principles, private property, and the ideas of Adam Smith and the Manchester School of Economics. David Ricardo’s "Iron Law of Wages" suggested market forces would keep workers at a subsistence wage where they only just get by. They generally disliked war and unions.

Broader Liberalism was the driving force of the $18 ext{th}$ and early $19 ext{th}$ centuries, emphasizing liberty, reason, and education. Liberals wanted to break up large empires and extend suffrage to eligible citizens. Conservatism, the "right wing" opposition, sought to maintain the status quo and the power of the old ruling forces. In the $19 ext{th}$ century, the upper class supported the Old Regime and wanted to "turn back the clock" to undo the French Revolution. Their ideology was based on legitimacy (returning absolute monarchs to power), the balance of power, and the prevention of future revolutions. They favored censorship, established churches, and the restriction of civil rights.

Romanticism and Realism

Romanticism was characterized by strong emotions, exotic subjects, and vivid colors. Artists like Eugene Delacroix produced works such as Massacre at Chios and Liberty Leading the People. The movement was fascinated by storms and death; for example, European hearts were stirred by images of Turks massacring Greeks. Realism, starting in the $1850 ext{s}$ and $1860 ext{s}$, sought to depict ordinary people doing ordinary tasks with dull colors. Key figures included the philosopher Bergson (irrationality and dynamic energy), the poet Charles Baudelaire (urban life and rebellion against Bourgeois culture), and the Barbizon painters such as Jean-Francois Millet (The Gleaners) and Gustave Courbet (Burial at Ornans). Henrik Ibsen introduced modern drama with A Doll's House, focusing on women's lives. Emile Zola wrote about ordinary life as he saw it, and Renan provided a historical view of Jesus in Life of Jesus.

Nationalism and Socialism

Nationalism is defined as pride for one’s country and the unity of its people. Constructive nationalism leads to the unification of cultural regions into larger states like Germany and Italy. Aggressive nationalism involves putting other nations down to establish supremacy, leading to imperialism. Destructive nationalism occurs when too many ethnic groups cannot cooperate, as seen in Austria-Hungary.

Socialism emerged in the $1830 ext{s}$ and $1840 ext{s}$ as an answer to the Industrial Revolution, advocating for the group ownership of the means of production to ensure social equality. Utopian Socialists, mostly French, dreamed of perfect societies but largely failed. Count Claude-Henri de Saint-Simon proposed a "religion of humanity" and a hierarchy based on productivity rather than blood. In an $1820$ parable, he noted that losing all of France's royalty would be less damaging than losing its bankers and farmers. Charles Fourier ($1772-1837$) identified $810$ personality types and proposed "Phalanx" communities of exactly $1620$ people to work together. Robert Owen successfully created an experimental industrial community in New Lanark, Scotland, with high wages and good conditions, but his agricultural experiment in New Harmony, Indiana, failed because workers took advantage of the system.

Communism, Totalitarianism, and Fascism

Pure Communism, in theory, describes a classless society with no government, no religion, no money, and no private property. Totalitarianism, exemplified by Joseph Stalin, involves a single-party dictatorship where the state controls all aspects of life, including work, education, and living conditions. It utilizes propaganda and "Social Realism" (art with a clear socialist message). Fascism is a totalitarian state that glorifies the state over the individual and is led by a strong ruler (II Duce). Unlike communism, fascism protects private property and private enterprise but imposes excessive regulations. Fascism is aggressively nationalistic, glorifying war as strength and viewing peace as weakness. It is explicitly against democracy and socialism.

Capitalism and Marxism

Capitalism, as detailed in Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations ($1776$), relies on the "Invisible Hand"—market forces of supply, demand, and competition. The government’s role is limited to maintaining a legal framework, property rights, and law and order. Smith emphasized the division of labor and self-interest. Orthodox Marxism, or Scientific Socialism, was presented in the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx. Marx viewed man as an economic animal and believed history was defined by class struggle (e.g., Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat). He famously called religion the "opiate of the masses." He predicted an inevitable workers' revolution that would lead to a temporary "Dictatorship of the Proletariat" and eventually pure communism. Marx believed this would happen first in highly industrialized countries, though history proved him wrong as it occurred in less industrialized nations. Revisionist Marxism, involving groups like the Fabian Society ($1884$), the German Social Democratic Party (S.P.D.), and the "Possibilitists," argued for gradual change through elections and voting rather than violent revolution.

Miscellaneous Philosophical and Artistic Movements

• Dialectical Materialism: A philosophical theory by Marx and Engels, influenced by Georg Hegel, stating that matter precedes thought.
• Anarchism: The belief that government is unnecessary. Pyotr Kropotkin argued society corrupts the individual. Radical factions known as the "Black International" carried out assassinations of figures like Czar Alexander II, King Umberto I, and President William McKinley.
• Nihilism: Associated with Friedrich Nietzsche, it posits that existence is meaningless and existing institutions must be destroyed.
• Darwinism and Social Darwinism: Charles Darwin's Origin of Species introduced biological evolution. Social Darwinists applied "Survival of the Fittest" to society to justify imperialism and genocide.
• Impressionism and Post-Impressionism: Impressionists like Edouard Manet and Edgar Degas focused on spontaneous, bright, and sometimes "unattractive" glimpses of life. Post-Impressionists like Vincent van Gogh emphasized the subject more heavily.
• Mercantilism: The economic theory that the government should build the economy to gather tangible currency ("specie") and achieve self-sufficiency.
• Syndicalism: The belief that organized trade unions should replace the state through strikes.
• Chartism: A British movement for suffrage based on the People’s Charter, which had six points: secret ballot, UMS, pay for MPs, no property requirement, equal districts, and annual parliaments. All were eventually passed except annual parliaments.
• Italian Irredentism: The movement to unite Italian states led by Garibaldi, Cavour, and Mazzini.
• Anti-Semitism: The persecution of Jews, seen in the Dreyfus Affair in France and Pogroms in Russia.
• Jingoism: Extreme nationalism fueled by media, leading to a desire for war (a factor in WWI).
• Mannerism: Artistic style ($1520-1600$) featuring emotional distortion and skewed perspectives.
• Pan Slavism: The movement to unify Slavic cultures, with Russia supporting Balkan nations like Serbia.
• Positivism: The philosophical principle that facts and the scientific method are more vital than theory.