Behavioral and Cognitive Approaches to Psychology
Operant Conditioning
E. L. Thorndike's Law of Effect (Early 20th Century)
Observed that behaviors followed by a reward are strengthened.
Behaviors followed by a punishment are weakened.
This fundamental observation led to the development of operant conditioning principles.
Operant Conditioning Defined
The shaping of behaviors through the systematic provision of rewards for desired behaviors and punishments for undesired behaviors.
B. F. Skinner's Experiments (1930s)
Demonstrated operant conditioning using pigeons.
Pigeons learned to press a bar for food (a reinforcer).
Pigeons learned to avoid pressing another bar associated with an electric shock (a punisher).
Examples in Humans:
A child learns to make their bed when rewarded with a hug and a kiss.
A child learns to stop hitting their brother when deprived of their favorite television show.
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
Behaviors are learned most quickly when paired with the reward or punishment every time the behavior is emitted.
This consistent response ensures rapid learning.
Partial Reinforcement Schedule
Reward or punishment occurs only sometimes in response to the behavior.
Behaviors learned and maintained under this schedule are more difficult to extinguish (eliminate).
Reason for Difficulty in Extinction: The behavior was learned under conditions of occasional reward, so continuous reward is not necessary to maintain it.
Example: Gambling Behavior
Gamblers are seldom rewarded, but they continue gambling in anticipation of an occasional, unpredictable win.
This occasional reinforcement makes the behavior highly resistant to extinction.
Hobart Mowrer's Two-Factor Model (1939)
Explains the persistence of fears through a combination of classical and operant conditioning.
Factor 1: Classical Conditioning
Initial development of fear responses to previously neutral stimuli.
Example: A woman falls off a bridge into icy water as a child, leading to anxiety whenever she is near a bridge.
Factor 2: Operant Conditioning (Conditioned Avoidance Response)
Individuals develop behaviors to avoid triggers for their fear.
Example: The woman with a fear of bridges develops elaborate means of navigating her hometown to avoid crossing any bridges.
Reinforcement: Avoiding bridges reduces her anxiety, which reinforces the avoidant behavior.
Consequence: This avoidance prevents exposure to the feared stimulus, thus eliminating the opportunity to extinguish the initial fear.
Therapeutic Implications: Many behavioral therapeutic techniques aim to extinguish these conditioned avoidance responses, as they can severely impair daily functioning.
Modeling and Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory)
Pure Behaviorists' Stance: Skinner and others argued that learning only occurs through direct experience of rewards or punishments.
Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory (1950s)
Challenged pure behaviorism, arguing that people also learn by watching others.
Modeling
Individuals learn new behaviors by imitating behaviors demonstrated by important people in their lives (e.g., parents).
Likelihood of Modeling: More likely when the model is an authority figure or is perceived to be similar to oneself.
Example (Bandura, 1969): Children are most likely to imitate behaviors modeled by their same-sex parent due to perceived authority and similarity.
Observational Learning
A person observes the rewards and punishments another person receives for their behavior.
The observer then adjusts their own behavior in accordance with these observed consequences.
Distinction from Modeling: Emphasizes observing the consequences of another's behavior, rather than just the behavior itself.
Example: A child who sees a sibling punished for dropping food on the floor learns the negative consequences and is less likely to drop food herself.
Broader Implications: Some theorists suggest that even extremely negative behaviors, such as violence and criminal activity, can result from observational learning (Allen, Anderson, \& Bushman, 2018).
Behavioral Therapies
Focus: Identifying reinforcements and punishments contributing to maladaptive behaviors and subsequently changing specific behaviors.
Foundation: Behavioral Assessment
Therapist and client collaboratively identify specific circumstances that trigger unwanted behaviors or emotional responses.
Key Questions:
What situations elicit anxiety symptoms?
When is heavy drinking most likely to begin?
What interactions cause the most distress?
Systematic Desensitization Therapy
A gradual method designed to extinguish anxiety responses to stimuli and accompanying maladaptive behaviors.
Process:
Relaxation Training: Client learns deep relaxation exercises.
Hierarchy of Feared Stimuli: Client develops a list of feared stimuli, ranging from mild anxiety-provoking to severely anxiety-provoking or panic-inducing.
Example for snake phobia: