Class

Part 1: Inequality and Class

• Overview of themes in Part 1: inequality, class, and how class operates in contemporary Australia.

Class in Australia

• Why is class not a popular concept in Australia? (even among academics)
  • Challenges our self-image as the ‘egalitarian’ country of ‘the fair go’
  • Challenges the idea of meritocracy
  • Foregrounds Australia as a settler colonial society
• Colloquial uses of the term ‘class’ (non-sociological):
  • Classy – good looking, prosperous
  • High Class – snobbish, pretentious
  • ‘Class war’, ‘Class system’, ‘politics of resentment/envy’
• Class is rarely mentioned in politics or media, which promote the myth of Australia as classless
• When class is mentioned today, it is often in arguments about redistribution of wealth or mining profits taxes, described as a ‘class war’ with terms like ‘undeserving lazy poor’ vs. ‘hard working’ people; described as a ‘politics of envy’
• Terms like ‘bogan’, ‘westie’, ‘chav’, ‘hipster’, ‘tosser’, ‘yuppie’ are all ‘classed’ terms without explicit acknowledgement of class

Neoliberal Capitalism (Neoliberalism)

• Neoliberal Capitalism is dominant globally and emphasizes:
  • Free market, private sector, deregulation, globalization, free trade, wealth accumulation
• Proponents argue that:
  • The distribution of wealth is ‘fair’ because everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed; we live in a meritocracy
  • Any inequality is the result of unequal effort or ability; some inequality provides incentive to perform better
  • Rising wealth for the privileged few is good for everyone via the ‘trickle-down effect’: when the living standards of the very rich rise, they bring everyone else up with them

Inequality in Wealth

• Wealth vs income:
  • Wealth = total assets (investments, property, etc.) minus debts
  • Wealth can be held offshore (tax havens)
• OECD (2020) estimates about $11.3$ trillion held offshore; offshore wealth complicates measuring the true wealth of rich citizens
• In Australia:
  • Wealth income often receives preferential tax treatment
  • The distribution of wealth is more unequal than the distribution of income

2025 Australian Income Data

• Average salary (annual): $102{,}741.60$ AUD
• Average salary (weekly): $1{,}975.80$ AUD
  • Males average: $2{,}167.70$ AUD
  • Females average: $1{,}850.80$ AUD
• Median salary (annual): $67{,}600$ AUD
• Median salary (weekly): $1{,}300$ AUD

Sociology of the Super-Rich

• Historically sociologists studied the less powerful (downwards), but a sociology of class now examines privilege and advantage as well as disadvantage
• Increasing focus on studying the ‘super rich’
• Key terms used for the super-rich: plutocratic, oligarchic, dynastic, neo-feudal, caste, entrenched, patrimonial
• Key questions:
  • Who are the super-rich?
  • What factors enable their rise?
  • How is place relevant to the super-rich?
  • What role does elite education play in their lives?
  • Can the super-rich be identified as a uniform class with shared interests and consciousness?
  • How do the super-rich gain legitimacy and social acceptance?
  • What factors facilitate social reproduction of the super-rich?
  • What role does philanthropy play in their lives?

Australia’s Rich List (Forbes/Financial Review)

• How it’s reported and framed: inspirational, celebratory, evidence that anyone can make it, investment/finance tips, or a sign of deep inequality needing social change
• What the list shows: wealth creation areas include minerals, property, and, more recently, technology; top names tend to be persistent with some new entrants in technology
• 2025 top five (approximate figures):
  • Gina Rinehart – Hancock Prospecting – $38.11$ billion
  • Harry Triguboff – Meriton – $29.65$ billion
  • Anthony Pratt and family – Visy, Pratt Industries – $25.85$ billion
  • Scott Farquhar – co-founder of Atlassian – $21.42$ billion
  • Clive Palmer – Mineralogy – $20.40$ billion
• Trend: the rate of growth of rich-lister wealth has been exponential; wealth concentrated in a few hands

Why Wealth Inequality Matters

• The Spirit Level (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009): high income inequality linked to social problems (violence, mental illness, drug abuse, obesity, poor educational levels)
• Welfare alone is not sufficient for change; some radical solutions proposed (e.g., Universal Basic Income, UBI)
• Thomas Piketty (Capital in the Twenty-First Century, 2014): evidence that current inequality levels are extreme and have not been seen since the 1800s; inequity threatens social and economic stability
• Inequality is not accidental but a feature of capitalism; can only be reversed through state intervention (e.g., wealth taxes)

Part 2: Marx, Weber and Bourdieu

Class as an Explanation of Inequality: Sociological Theories

• Functionalist view (class): inequality is necessary (functional) to motivate individuals to succeed; aligns with liberal capitalist belief but recognizes that too much inequality is harmful
• Marxist view (conflict theory): capitalism involves private property, exploitation, and alienation; class inequality is structural; Marx’s work critiques capitalism more than it prescribes a solution
• Weberian view: builds on Marx with a multi-dimensional view of social conflict; not solely economic
• Bourdieusian view: emphasizes symbolic and relational elements of class and power; links structure and agency

Max Weber: Multidimensional Market Situation

• Social stratification is not just about objective economic class; it also includes social status and party relationships (subjective elements)
• The market is where status is negotiated; economic resources can be sold in the market for income and good working conditions
• Life chances are shaped by one’s class situation and access to resources
• Terminology:
  • Status: differences in honor or prestige accorded by others; not necessarily economically determined
  • Status groups form through shared lifestyle characteristics (e.g., race, neighborhood, gender, taste, morals)
  • New money vs. old money; respectable working-class vs. ‘Yobbos’ / ‘White trash’; hipsters vs. bogans
  • Party: group of individuals who work together due to shared backgrounds/amid interests; can influence stratification independently of class and status
• Thus, for Weber, power can arise from ideas and not only economic position
• Examples: women’s movement, Greens, Family First

Max Weber: Life Chances, Economy and Society (1922)

• Life chances: opportunities, resources, and possibilities for doing well and improving life quality
• Life chances are positively correlated with socio-economic status
• Components of life chances include:
  • Healthcare and housing
  • Inheritance of property and business
  • Acquisition of skills and education
  • Gender, race/ethnicity, age
• Weber viewed class/status relationships as complex and multi-dimensional; people come together for multiple reasons toward multiple ends

Comparing Marx and Weber

• Marx:
  • Class as objective (economic)
  • Class groups: bourgeoisie and proletariat
  • Based on means of production; macro societal analysis; capitalist mode of production
  • Economic determinism; ideology fits the structure; relatively deterministic
  • Sketches a utopian future (communism)
• Weber:
  • Class as objective (economic) and subjective (symbolic)
  • Class groups: propertied/ruling class, intelligentsia/professionals, petit bourgeoisie, working class
  • Three elements of stratification: class, party, status
  • Analysis at an interactional level: life chances/market situation
  • Interaction of production and consumption patterns matters; includes status to explain cultural elements of class relations
  • Sketches a negative future: the iron cage of rationality

Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002)

• French sociologist who bridged structure and agency
• Famous works: Distinction, Outline of a Theory of Practice, The Logic of Practice
• Focused on inequality, culture, education, and power
• Sought to understand how social class is reproduced across institutions and generations

Part 3: Class Today

Key Concepts: Habitus, Field, and Capitals

Habitus

• Definition: your habits, values, ways of thinking and acting learned from your background; like social instincts shaped by family, culture, and class
• Sources: class background, family, education, life experiences
• Features:
  • Mostly unconscious
  • Durable but adaptable
  • Guides behavior and perceptions
• Example: dress, accent, preferences, body language, natural talents and values; it is your “feel for the game”

Field

• Definition: all human actions take place within social fields (e.g., school, sports, work) with its own rules, values, and what is valued
• Fields are sites of struggle; people compete for status, power, and resources
• Examples of fields (institutions): academic field, art world, political field, legal systems, labor market, media, scientific world

Capitals

• Extended Marx’s notion of economic capital by adding multiple forms of capital:
  • Cultural capital (education, taste, manners, qualifications)
  • Social capital (connections and networks)
  • Symbolic capital (reputation, status, respect)
  • Economic capital (wealth, property)
• Capitals are the resources you have that are valued in “the game”

How Habitus, Field, and Capitals Work Together

• When you enter a field, habitus influences how you behave; if habitus matches the field, you feel confident and can play the game
• If habitus does not match the field, you may feel out of place, confused, or less successful
• Example: Working-Class Student at University
  • Habitus: grew up where university was not discussed; did not read academic books; values practical work
  • Field: university values academic language, debate, independence, focused study
  • Capitals:
  • Cultural: may lack the language/essay-writing norms to engage confidently in class
  • Social: may lack networks with others who have attended university
  • Economic: may need to work long hours, reducing study time
  • Symbolic: may lack the ‘right’ accent or familiarity with academic culture
• Consequences: student may feel university isn’t for people like them; not because of lack of intelligence, but due to misfit between habitus, field, and capitals
• Conclusion: Class is relational and not static

Symbolic Power, Misrecognition and Symbolic Violence

• Symbolic power: The power to name, define, and legitimize what is valued in a society or field; not physical, but about controlling meaning, perception, and norms; usually held by dominant groups (e.g., elites, academics, cultural authorities)
  • Example: Universities defining what counts as “intelligence,” “success,” or “good taste”
• Misrecognition: When social inequalities are seen as natural or deserved and not recognized as power relations; people accept the rules of the game even if those rules disadvantage them
  • Example: A student from a working-class background may believe they failed because they weren’t smart enough, rather than because the system was stacked against them
• Symbolic violence: Result of symbolic power and misrecognition; not physical, but subtle, invisible, and often unrecognized; a soft domination where people internalize inequality as their own fault
  • Example: A student feels ashamed for not knowing academic language rather than questioning why only one kind of speech is valued

Quote and Context

• Quote from the book description: "This book is a powerful and vibrant study of the complex realities of class in modern Australia." — Sally McManus
• Book focus: CLASS IN AUSTRALIA (Edited by Steven Threadgold and Jessica Gerrard)

Part 3: Class Today (Continued)

Cashed-up Bogans (CUB) in Australia

• ‘Bogan’: term used to refer to someone who does not conform to middle-class tastes and leisure practices (i.e., working class)
• Emergence of the Cashed Up Bogans (CUB) in the 2000s
• ‘Bogan’ was originally a derogatory term but is being reclaimed in playful ways
• Class is relational and shifting; meanings of terms like ‘bogan’ and ‘Cashed-up Bogan’ will continue to change

Is Class an Outdated Concept?

• Class described as a “zombie category” (Beck, 2004)
• Statistics show inequality is rising, yet:
  • There is a decline in class consciousness and class politics
  • Many people do not identify as proletarian workers; most own homes and cars, shop, and take holidays; identify as ‘middle class’
• Embourgeoisement of the working class: working-class people seek to define themselves outside of proletariat status and pursue property/business ownership
• Some new approaches to thinking about class have emerged (not detailed here)

Conclusion

• Social Class and Inequality
  • Social class matters and inequality is growing at exponential rates
  • Class interacts with other social locations (e.g., disability, age) to create advantage or disadvantage (see left ‘The Boganette’ analogy/cartoon)
  • Next week: exploration of gender and sexuality and their intersections with class
  • Traditional studies often treated families as aligned with a single class; women have been invisible in class studies, with class position assumed to be that of men
  • Class and gender intersected today by women’s engagement in paid work, diversity of households, and accounting for both paid and unpaid work
  • Class and sexuality intersections are complex due to the long-term invisibility of queer working-class in research and media, and the emergence of homonormativity