Problem Solving

A problem arises when an obstacle stands between the present state and the goal, with the solution not immediately obvious.

Problem-solving involves (1) representing a problem in the mind and (2) reorganizing or restructuring this representation.
Restructuring: Changing the problem's representation.
Insight: The sudden realization of a problem’s solution, often involving restructuring.
Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) demonstrated that solutions for insight problems occur suddenly.
Obstacles to problem solving include fixation, such as functional fixedness (focusing on familiar uses of objects).
Mental set: A preconceived notion about approaching a problem based on past experiences.

Newell and Simon (1972) viewed problem-solving as a search process involving initial and goal states, operators, intermediate states, and problem space.
Means-end analysis: Reducing the difference between initial and goal states by creating subgoals.

How a problem is stated can significantly affect its difficulty.
The mutilated checkerboard problem illustrates that providing information that points people toward the correct representation makes the problem easier to solve.
Think-aloud protocol: Participants verbalize their thoughts while solving a problem to reveal their thought processes.

Analogical problem solving: Using the solution to a similar problem to guide the solution of a new problem.
Analogical transfer: Transferring experience from solving one problem to solving another similar problem.
Gick and Holyoak’s (1983) three steps of analogical problem solving:
1. Noticing the analogous relationship.
2. Mapping the correspondence.
3. Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution.
Analogical encoding: Comparing two problems and determining similarities between them to understand the underlying structure.
In vivo problem-solving research: Observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations.

Experts solve problems faster and with higher success rates due to better knowledge and its organization.
Experts categorize problems based on structural features (underlying principles), while novices use surface characteristics.
Experts spend more time analyzing problems initially.
Expertise is only advantageous within the expert's field.

Creativity involves producing original and useful solutions.
Divergent thinking: Open-ended thinking involving a large number of potential solutions.
Creative problem-solving often involves analogical thinking.
Creative problem solving includes a lengthy period of trial-and-error development.
Knowledge is essential but sometimes too much knowledge can hinder creative problem solving.
Brainstorming: Freely expressing ideas without criticism.
Individual brainstorming and creative cognition techniques can be effective.
A positive mood and physical exercise may facilitate creative thinking.

Reduced latent inhibition (LI) is associated with being more open to stimuli and with mental illness and enhanced creativity.
Snyder (2009) proposed that savant skills are linked to reduced top-down inhibition in the brain.