Cognitive Learning Theories
Chapter 6: Cognitive Learning Theories: Gestalt, Ausubel, and Bandura
Learning Objectives
Explain the common characteristics of all cognitive theories.
Define the concept of Gestalt and provide examples.
Define learning in Gestalt theory.
Define insight and explain the characteristics of learning through insight.
Explain the laws of perceptual organization with examples.
Explain Wertheimer's concept of productive thinking.
Explain the applications of Gestalt theory.
Explain the meaning of meaningfulness of content.
Clarify the difference between meaningful and non-meaningful learning with examples.
Define subsumption in Ausubel's meaningful learning theory and describe its types.
Define advance organizer and describe its types.
Explain the applications of meaningful learning theory.
Explain the salient features of Bandura's social-cognitive theory and compare this theory with behavioral theories.
Explain Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism.
Explain the stages of observational learning.
Define self-regulated learning and describe methods to help create self-regulation.
Compare the concepts of self-regulation, self-control, self-esteem, self-concept, and self-efficacy.
Explain the educational applications of Bandura's social-cognitive learning theory.
Introduction to Cognitive Learning Theories
Behavioral theories view learning as a change in overt behavior.
Cognitive theorists view learning as the acquisition and reconstruction of cognitive structures through which information is processed and stored in memory.
Cognitive theories emphasize that learning is an internal process that may not manifest as an immediate change in overt behavior.
Cognitive theorists believe that learning creates abilities in an individual, stored in memory, and available for use when needed, immediately or after time.
Cognitive theories give the learner a more significant role in creating learning, unlike behavioral theories that emphasize the environment's role.
Cognitive theories, like behavioral theories, are diverse.
Gestalt Learning Theory
Founder: Max Wertheimer, a German scientist, contemporary to behaviorists in the early 20th century, researched learning and perception.
Gestalt psychology is a leading cognitive theory, influencing subsequent cognitive theories.
Defining the Concept of Gestalt
Gestalt is a German term meaning shape, form, or pattern, but has a deeper meaning for Gestalt psychologists.
In Gestalt psychology, the whole is more than the sum of its parts. The whole has properties not found in its individual components.
The whole determines the characteristics of its parts, not the other way around.
Example: A whirlpool. The individual water droplets do not represent the whirlpool; the water's movement defines it.
Example: Seeing three points as a triangle (Figure 1-6a) versus seeing three random points (Figure 1-6b). The arrangement creates the perception of a triangle.
A triangle comprises three separate points plus the pattern created by their arrangement.
This illustrates the principle that the whole is more than the sum of its parts.
Definition of Learning in Gestalt Theory
Learning involves insight gained from understanding the learning situation as a unified whole.
Insight is achieved through discovering the relationships between the components of the learning situation.
The main element of learning is achieving insight.
Definition of Insight
Wolfgang Köhler, another Gestalt theorist, conducted research demonstrating learning through insight.
A learner gains insight by understanding the relationships between the parts of a learning situation as an organized whole.
Köhler's (1925) research with monkeys showed they use insight to solve problems.
Experiment Example: A banana hung from the ceiling, out of reach of the monkey. The monkey had to use a table, stack boxes, or combine sticks to reach the banana.
Monkeys solved the problem by discovering the relationship between the table and banana or the sticks and banana.
Solving the problem involved discovering the relationship between the boxes or sticks and the banana.
Example from Köhler's Book
Solving a problem depends on understanding the relationships between its components.
Problem: In Figure 6-2, rectangle ABPT is inscribed in a circle with radius 'sh'. Determine the length of line AP.
The solution involves recognizing that AP and BT are both diameters of the rectangle and thus equal. Since BT is the radius of the circle (sh), AP is also equal to the radius (sh).
Solving this depends on discovering the relationships between the components.
Köhler (1969) stated that when the problem is correctly transformed, the reason for drawing the second diameter becomes clear, which is insight in thinking.
Characteristics of Learning Through Insight
Gestalt psychology identifies several characteristics of problem-solving or insightful learning:
Sudden and Complete Transition: The move from the pre-solution phase to the solution phase is sudden and complete.
Smooth and Error-Free Performance: Performance resulting from insightful problem-solving is typically smooth and free of errors.
Retention: The solution obtained through insight is retained for a significant period.
Transferability: The solution from one problem can be easily applied to other similar problems.
Laws of Perceptual Organization
Gestalt theory is more known as a theory of perception. Its major contributions are in this area.
Perception is based on several laws or principles called the laws of perceptual organization.
These laws are innate human abilities through which individuals organize perceptual phenomena.
Gestalt psychologists believe that these laws can be generalized to learning phenomena.
Law of Similarity
Similar or homogeneous items are perceived better than dissimilar ones.
Köhler's (1969) studies with nonsense syllables showed that homogeneous syllables are understood and learned more easily than heterogeneous ones.
Similarity in shape and color causes objects and events to be perceived and learned together as a group.
Law of Proximity
Phenomena and things close to each other are better understood and more easily learned.
Elements located near each other are perceived as a single, coherent whole.
Law of Closure
Incomplete shapes are perceived as complete units.
Koffka ([1935] 1963) stated that closure in Gestalt theory plays the same role as reinforcement in reinforcement theories. As long as a person is engaged with a problem, their understanding of the situation is incomplete.
When the problem is solved and the incomplete part is completed, the person reaches their goal, and reinforcement occurs.
The important thing is not to obtain reinforcement but to complete an activity and relate the parts of the problem to each other.
Law of Good Continuation
Perceptual organization forms in a way that a straight line continues as a straight line, a partial circle as a circle, etc.
Hilgard and Bower (1975) stated that the law of good continuation can be shown with letters of the alphabet or numbers, provided there is a rule to expand the list.
This type of expansion is used in letter completion problems in intelligence tests. The test-taker must discover the rule and use it to complete the list.
Example: In the list of letters abcbcdcdede, there is a three-stage cycle that repeats, so the list is completed with the letter 'f'.
Law of Simplicity
Phenomena are perceived in a simplified way.
Law of Figure-Ground
Gestalt phenomena stand out in the context in which they are found.
The figure is the Gestalt in any field, i.e., what is perceived. The ground is the scene in which the figure appears.
The part of the perceptual field that is well-organized and attracts attention is called the figure.
The vague and indistinct part of the perceptual field in which the figure stands out is called the ground.
Examples: In Figure 6-3:
Similarity: Similar lines are perceived together.
Proximity: Lines close together are perceived together.
Closure: An incomplete circle is perceived as complete.
Good continuation: The pattern continues as it started.
Simplicity: Two complete quadrilaterals are seen, not five undefined shapes.
Figure-ground: A white vase is seen as the figure against a black background. The white and black parts sometimes appear as the figure and sometimes as the ground.
If the white part (vase) appears as the figure, the black part plays the role of the ground, and if the black part (two faces facing each other) appears as the figure, the white part plays the role of the ground.
Educational Applications of Gestalt Theory
Max Wertheimer ([1945] 1959) introduced the principles of Gestalt theory to teachers.
In his book "Productive Thinking" (1945), Wertheimer applied Gestalt principles to teaching and insightful learning.
Michael Wertheimer republished the book with additions in 1959. It introduces the nature of problem-solving and educational techniques of productive thinking.
Wertheimer ([1945] 1959) criticized the common teaching methods of his time that relied on logic and associationism, saying they hindered understanding.
Logical Method: Rules are prescribed to reach results. Wertheimer believed this did not lead to insight or increase problem-solving ability. Learners need to cognitively reconstruct and rearrange the components of the problem.
Associationism Method: Emphasizes learning connections between stimulus and response through practice, memorization, and external reinforcement. He considered it less important than learning through insight.
Wertheimer believed that methods dependent on associationism and logic not only did not help increase understanding but also greatly hindered it.
Wertheimer ([1945] 1959) gave the following explanation to show the difference between rote memorization and understanding based on insight:
Students are taught to find the area of a rectangle by multiplying length by width. Then they are shown a parallelogram and how to transform it into a rectangle.
Then they are told that the area can be found by multiplying the length by the width (Figure 6-4).
Wertheimer discovered that students learn to calculate the area of a parallelogram by transforming it into a rectangle, but they become confused when shapes are unusual (Figure 6-5) or asked to find the area of non-parallelogram shapes.
Wertheimer wants students to divide the surface of a rectangle into small squares and find the area (Figure 6-6a). He then gives the students a paper parallelogram and asks them to use the method to find the area (Figure 6-6b).
Students would cut one of the triangular ends of the parallelogram and put it on the other end to make a rectangle (Figure 6-6p). Some rolled the paper, connected the ends, cut the roll in the middle, and transformed it into a rectangle.
Students who understood the square method could solve many diverse problems, but those who did not understand could not solve the problems.
Students who gained insight into the nature of the problem knew that any shape could be transformed and calculated. They knew that the extra parts of the pictures (Figure 7-6 Column A) were equal to the fractional parts of those shapes, but they could not do this with the pictures (Column B) (Figure 7-6).
Katona (1940) reported studies showing the superiority of learning through understanding over rote memorization. Learning by understanding and discovering relationships leads to faster memorization and retention.
The goal of training should be to create the ability to understand, not to pressure students to memorize.
The emphasis on understanding and perceiving relationships as a unified whole has been a great service to education.
Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning Theory
Founder: David Ausubel (1963, 1968, 1978), an American psychologist.
Ausubel described the theory in his book Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (1968).
This theory is closely related to school learning.
Cognitive Structure
In Ausubel's theory, cognitive structure and changes from learning form the basis of learning.
Cognitive structure is a set of organized information, concepts, principles, and generalizations that a person has previously learned in a field of knowledge.
Cognitive structure refers to a person's general knowledge in a specific field of science and education.
The cognitive structure of each person is a hypothetical pyramid with the most general topics and concepts at the top, the items with less generality in the middle, and the most specific facts at the base.
Each item in this pyramid is more general, abstract, and concise than the items below it.
Significant information leads to such a cognitive structure pyramid.
Meaningfulness of Learning
Meaning is important in Ausubel's theory. Meaning depends on a mental equivalent for learnings in the learner's cognitive structure.
Concepts related to previously learned concepts are meaningful. Meaningful items are related to prior learning.
Non-meaningful or rote memorized items are accumulated randomly without connection to each other.
Learners can meaningfully learn new material when they relate it to what they have previously learned. But if new information is memorized through repetition without understanding the relationship to what they have previously learned, it is memorized by rote.
Nonsense syllables used in psychological studies are non-meaningful because it is impossible to relate them to prior learning; thus, the syllables are rote memorized.
Learning the definition of an isosceles triangle (a triangle with two equal sides) is a meaningful learning activity because a student who has previously learned the concept of a triangle can easily relate the new concept to it.
Learning Meaningful Content
Learning is achieved through creating a relationship between new and previously learned material.
The main idea is for the learner to connect new ideas to existing ones.
Creating a connection involves establishing a relationship between the new learning material and the cognitive structure of the individual.
Meaningful learning requires the learner to have already learned concepts to which the new concept can be related.
When fresh material enters the cognitive structure, each item is placed in its proper location under the comprehensive and general material.
Meaningful learning occurs if possible. But if a new subject cannot find a suitable place in the cognitive structure (i.e., it cannot be related to previously learned material), meaningful learning cannot occur.
If learning is insisted upon through practice and repetition, the thing will be rote memorized.
Learning is meaningful when new material has a systematic relationship with previously learned material, which means new material expands or changes previously learned material.
Past experiences determine meaningful learning.
Subsumers
Learners must have background concepts and information to relate new learning to. New material is absorbed into the learner's cognitive structure.
Ausubel (1968, 1978) called absorbing things into the cognitive structure subsumption.
Subsumption is relating a new concept to one that already exists in the cognitive structure, changing both concepts.
The term "subsumer" is the general concept in this theory.
Subsumption is synonymous with schema, code system, or category in other theories; it has the advantage of including other ideas.
Ausubel uses this term to explain learning and forgetting.
Meaningful learning happens when material is subsumed under broader topics.
Meaningful material is related to the cognitive structure.
If a item does have that feature, it's not meaningful.
Types of Subsumers
Ausubel (1968) refers to two types of subsumers: derivative subsumers and correlative subsumers. Accordingly, there are two types of subsumption: derivative and correlative. When new material is a particular case of items in the cognitive structure, or when new material is so similar to items in the cognitive structure that it can be derived from it, this learning is called derivative subsumption. Derivative inclusion occurs in information learning through examples. According to Ausubel (1968), derivative inclusion occurs when, "the subject under learning is a specific example of an established concept in the cognitive structure, or this subject confirms and introduces a previously learned general topic," the new subject can be derived directly and clearly from a general cognitive structure concept (p. 100).
On the other hand, when the new subject is not a specific subject of the items and concepts in the cognitive structure but it can be related to it, learning that subject is done through correlative subsumption. For example, the reader of this book has become familiar with the concept of learning in previous parts of the book. In the present part, he becomes familiar with new concepts of learning. The concepts that the reader learned in the previous parts expand to the new material that he is now learning, leading to a change in his previously learned concepts about learning. This case of learning is an example of correlative subsumption. According to Ausubel (1968), learning by correlative inclusion is more common than learning by derivative inclusion. New material is commonly learned through correlative inclusion. In this case, the new learning item is a type of expansion, extension, change, or transformation of previously learned material (p. 100).
After an item or concept is learned, that is, it is included under the contents of the cognitive structure, it gradually becomes similar to the cognitive structure in which it is absorbed until. As long as the new material is distinguishable from the material to which it is absorbed, it can be remembered. But if this subject or concept is not used, gradually over time it loses its distinction from the cognitive structure, meaning that its characteristics are lost in the form of the characteristics of the more general material in the cognitive structure, and it loses its identity and can no longer be recalled.
According to the existing theory, learned material is initially readable; however, after a while without use, it is no longer readable, but recognizable, meaning the learner can recognize the material from other material but will not be able to recall it. Finally, if the learned material remains unused, it will be neither readable nor recognizable, but it will be learned more quickly in relearning than unlearned material. This process is called obiterative subsumption. Obiterative inclusion is the loss of identity and independence of learned material over time. According to Ausubel (1968), the role of obiterative inclusion is to reduce the burden on memory and to increase the efficiency of cognitive organization; the obiterative trend occurs, especially in the case of inclusions that are unstable, ambiguous, or poorly connected, or in the case of learning material that does not have much distinguishing power or is not well learned (p. 101).
Ausubel justifies learning with the processes of derivative inclusion and correlative inclusion and forgetting with the process of obiterative inclusion. The presence of cognitive structure causes meaningful material to be learned quickly and easily, meaning it finds its proper place in the cognitive structure; but for the same reason, the details of this cognitive structure are simply removed from the mind over time--the details of items gradually decay, and only the main framework remains in the form of very general and abstract material and concepts.
Educational Applications of Meaningful Verbal Learning Theory
Since the theory of meaningful verbal learning was developed to explain the problems of school learning, many of its principles can be directly used to improve the learning process in the classroom. The following are the most important applications of this theory in school learning situations.
Controlling Factors Affecting Learning and Recalling Meaningful Material
In the theory of meaningful learning, learning is creating a relationship between new material and the learner's cognitive structure. Therefore, the learner's cognitive structure at the time of learning is the most important factor affecting learning and recalling new content. Factors that improve cognitive structure and increase the quality of learning and recall are organization, stability, and clarity of the learner's knowledge in a particular field at the moment of learning, i.e., if the learner's current cognitive structure or knowledge in the field of learning is organized, stable, and clear, learning new material will. It will occur more meaningfully and easily, and keeping the material in memory will last longer. If this cognitive structure is unorganized, unstable, and vague, learning and recalling new material will be difficult. Therefore, from an educational point of view, the teacher must try to strengthen these characteristics of the learner's cognitive structure. This is possible through creating order and harmony in the material the teacher teaches to the learners. Ausubel (1968) considers the learner's previous knowledge and learning to be very important, in this regard, he said: “If I were to summarize all the material of educational psychology in one principle, that principle would be: the only important ingredient that has the most influence. (is on learning is the learner's previous learning; fulfill this principle and teach accordingly" (p. 5).
According to this principle, teaching is an intentional effort in creating appropriate cognitive structures for making material meaningful and helping better learning. According to Ausubel, when we deliberately try to change the cognitive structure to maximize meaningful learning and recall, we have achieved the main process of teaching. Regarding the approval of meaningful learning and the direct teaching method intended by Ausubel, Snowman, McCown, and Beeler (2009) stated: “Look at the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (see Chapter 4) for the role of teachers, parents, and others who can be effective teachers in meaningful learning. Vygotsky said that some of the things we learn about the world around us are directly from stimuli.” (p. 219). Therefore, one of the direct teaching tactics is using advance organizers in teaching.
Advance Organizers
In the previous pages, it was said that, according to Meaningful Learning theory, knowledge related to each other in an educational field is organized in the form of a hypothetical pyramid-shaped and hierarchical scheme in a very economical way and in connection with each other to create a cognitive structure in the scientific field. According to this theory, course material should be designed and presented initially by comprehensively and abstractly introducing the most general, comprehensive, and most abstract concepts and ideas in a summarized way; then, following these general topics, the more minor and detailed topics should be gradually introduced. Ausubel believes this teaching style aligns with the natural stages of cognitive structure formation.
Ausubel's proposed teaching method for meaningful learning is called demonstrative teaching. In demonstrative teaching, the teacher teaches learners about the organization and internal connection by demonstrating, explaining, and describing the material. This teaching method is special, and it's for receiving learning, which is different from Bruner's and others' intended explorative learning. Receiving learning is a type of learning where the learner learns the structure of knowledge as the teacher provides it through demonstrative teaching. Advance organizers play a key role in Ausubel's demonstrating teaching method.
An advance organizer is a set of concepts related to the learning material given to the learners before teaching its detailed details. The advance organizer is a key concept that forms the basis for learning subsequent material. The role of an advance organizer is to provide inclusive concepts. i.e., providing a set of very comprehensive concepts in which less comprehensive concepts and information are included. The role of advance organizers is to attract the learner's attention to the major concepts of the material under learning, highlight the relationships between the materials, and connect the new material to what the learner already knows (Schunk, 2000, p. 173).
Advance organizers are provided to learners in the form of a summary of the lesson topic at the beginning of the lesson; however, they are not merely a summary of the lesson but include material that provides organizing elements for new learning. According to Gage and Berliner (1984), advance organizers for a particular topic may be a written or spoken summary that is at a higher level in terms of abstractness, wholeness, and comprehensiveness than the material to be learned (PP. 315-314).
In summary, the advance organizers should provide a mental framework for the learner so that more information can be properly established within the framework. The items included in the advance organizers may be fundamental and fundamental material of the lesson or other material that helps the learner understand the relationship between the previous lessons and the new lesson. Advance organizers help the learner in two cases: (1) When the learner has not previously learned material similar to the new material to which they can connect the new material. (2) When the learner already has the necessary inclusive information, but the relationship between it and the new material is unclear to them.
Keep in mind that the advance organizer is different from other teaching tactics, including reviewing past lessons, providing the objectives of the new lesson, or introducing a new lesson. All of these are important teaching tactics, but they are not advance organizers. The following are examples of advance organizers This material is adapted from the book Learning education Arnds (1998, pp. 239-238).
Suppose a history teacher wants to provide information about the Vietnam War to his students. After reviewing the previous day's lesson, presenting the objectives of the new lesson, and prompting students to recall what they know about Vietnam, the teacher provides the following advance organizer to the students: “I want to help you understand why America entered the Vietnam War; for this, I will introduce you to an important concept, which is that most wars between nations occur for three main reasons: (1) belief [ideology], (2) territory [water and soil], and (3) access to trade. While explaining to you how the United States became involved in Southeast Asia between 1945 and 1965, I would like you to find cases of conflict over belief, territory, and access to trade that influenced America's subsequent decisions in continuing the war in Vietnam" (p. 238).
Again, pay attention to another example of the use of advance organizers. A teacher wants to teach his students the concept of culture or dictionary and how to use it. At the beginning of the lesson, he provides the following explanations to them as a advance organizer: “Today, we want to learn what a culture is like and what help it gives us. We learn all the information about words from this book, including grammatical abbreviations, correct spelling of words, origin of words, correct pronunciation of words, and of course the meaning of words. In today's lesson, you will learn how to use a culture or dictionary to find this kind of information.” (Yelon & Weinstein, 1977, p. 152)
Types of Advance Organizers
Ausubel (1978) divides advance organizers into two categories demonstrative or explanatory and comparative. Demonstrative advance organizers explain general ideas and their relationships with each other and clarify important points that may cause confusion for learners. The material of these advance organizers is more general and more abstract than the material of the lesson. Seifert (1991) said about this type of advance organizer: