The Rise of Nationalism in Europe - Lecture 3 Study Notes

Grimm Brothers and German Cultural Nationalism

• Biographical Background: The Grimm Brothers were born in the German city of Hanau.
• Research of Folktales: They spent a total of $6$ years traveling from village to village. During this time, they spoke to residents and meticulously recorded fairy tales that had been transmitted orally through generations.
• Political Involvement: Subsequently, both brothers became actively involved in liberal politics, with a specific focus on movements advocating for the freedom of the press.
• Cultural Resistance: The brothers viewed French domination as a significant threat to German culture.
• Authentic Spirit: They arrived at the belief that the folktales they collected served as expressions of a pure and authentic German spirit.
• Historical Legacy: Their efforts helped preserve the German heritage and language, establishing them as pioneers of German cultural nationalism during the $19^{th}$ century.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

• Developments in France: Events in February $1848$ in France resulted in the abdication of the monarch and the establishment of a republic. This new government was founded on the principle of universal male suffrage (the right to vote for all adult males).
• The State of Europe: In other parts of Europe, such as Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, independent nation-states had not yet been established.
• Demands of the Middle Class: During this period, liberal men and women from the middle class—professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans—demanded constitutionalism combined with national unification.
• The Frankfurt Parliament:     * Formation: In German regions, various political associations gathered in Frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly.     * The Procession: On $18$ May $1848$, exactly $831$ elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their seats at the Church of St Paul.     * Constitutional Drafting: They drafted a constitution for a German nation, designed to be led by a monarch who would be subject to a parliament.     * The Reaction of Friedrich Wilhelm IV: When the crown was offered to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, the King of Prussia, he rejected it. He chose instead to join other monarchs in opposing the elected assembly.

The Unification of Germany

• Leadership Transition: Following the death of Friedrich Wilhelm IV in $1861$ (after he suffered a series of strokes), the crown passed to his youngest brother, Prince Wilhelm, also known as Kaiser William I.
• The Architect of Unification: Otto von Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, acted as the chief architect of German unification, utilizing the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Military Conflicts: The process involved $3$ wars fought over a period of $7$ years against Austria, Denmark, and France.
• Outcome: These conflicts ended in Prussian victory, completing the process of unification.
• The Proclamation: On $18$ January $1871$, an assembly representing the princes of German states, the army, and ministers (including Otto von Bismarck) met in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. They declared the new German Empire, headed by Kaiser William I.

The Unification of Italy

• Political Fragmentation: During the middle of the $19^{th}$ century, Italy was divided into $7$ states. Only one state, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house (led by Victor Emmanuel II).
• Foreign Control:     * Northern Italy: Controlled by the Austrian Habsburgs.     * Central Italy: Ruled by the Pope (Papal States).     * Southern Italy: Controlled by the Bourbon Dynasty of Spain (Kingdom of the Two Sicilies).
• Giuseppe Mazzini:     * Secret Societies: Born in Genoa in $1807$, he founded "Young Italy" in Marseille and "Young Europe" in Berne.     * Philosophy: He believed that "God had intended nations to be natural units of mankind."     * Exile: He was sent into exile in $1831$ for attempting a revolution in Liguria. Chancellor Metternich described him as the "most dangerous enemy of our social order."
• Count Camillo Cavour: As Chief Minister, he was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He utilized strategic alliances with France to defeat Austrian forces in $1859$.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Red Shirts:     * Joining the Cause: Garibaldi met Mazzini in $1833$ and joined the Young Italy movement.     * Expedition of the Thousand: In $1860$, he led an expedition to South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies with his "Red Shirt" army.     * Rome: In $1867$, he led an army to Rome to fight the Papal States, where a French garrison was stationed.
• Final Unification: In $1870$, France withdrew its troops from Rome due to the Franco-Prussian war, allowing the Papal States to join Italy. Italy was fully unified as a nation in $1870$.

The Growth of Great Britain

• Ethnicity and Origins: Prior to the $18^{th}$ century, there was no British nation. The primary identities were ethnic: English, Welsh, Scot, and Irish.
• Early Integration: In the $16^{th}$ century, under King Henry VIII, England passed laws to officially unite Wales with England.
• The Act of Union ($1707$): This act between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the "United Kingdom of Great Britain." This followed the transition where King James VI of Scotland became James I of England.
• Incorporation of Ireland: Ireland was deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. Following a failed revolt, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in $1801$.

Visualising the Nation

• Definition of Allegory: A story or picture that uses symbols to convey a hidden meaning. Nations were often portrayed as female figures.
• National Allegories:     * Marianne: The female allegory of France, representing the republic and national unity. Her images were marked on coins and stamps.     * Germania: The female allegory of the German nation.
• Symbolic Meanings:     * Broken chains: Signify freedom from oppression.     * Crown of Oak leaves: Represents heroism and strength.     * Sword: Signifies readiness to defend.     * Olive branch around the sword: Willingness to make peace.     * Shield and Eagle: Represents power and protection.

Nationalism and Imperialism

• Nationalism: A sense of belonging to one nation; feelings of pride and patriotism towards one's country.
• Imperialism: A policy where a country extends its power into other territories for economic and political gains.
• The Balkan Crisis:     * The Balkans was a region of great geographical and ethnic diversity, comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro.     * A large part was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.     * Great powers (Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary) competed for control over the region.
• The Catalyst for World War I:     * Assassination: On $28$ June $1914$, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was assassinated in Sarajevo.     * The Assassin: Gavrilo Princip, a $19$-year-old member of a secret group called the "Black Hand."     * Alliances: Russia supported Serbia; Germany supported Austria-Hungary; France and Britain supported Russia. This network of alliances led directly to World War I.

Timeline of Major Events

• $1797$: Napoleon invades Italy; the Napoleonic wars begin.
• $1814$–$1815$: Fall of Napoleon; the Vienna Peace Settlement.
• $1821$: The Greek struggle for independence begins.
• $1848$: Revolutions across Europe. Middle classes demand constitutions; artisans and peasants revolt against economic hardship.
• $1859$–$1870$: The Unification of Italy.
• $1866$–$1871$: The Unification of Germany.
• $1905$: Slav nationalism gains momentum in the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires.
• $1914$: Outbreak of World War I.

Questions & Discussion

• Question: Who among the following was the architect for the Unification of Germany?     * (A) Otto von Bismarck     * (B) William I     * (C) Frederick III     * (D) William II     * Answer: (A) Otto von Bismarck.
• Question: Which one of the following is not true about the female allegory of France?     * (A) She was named Marianne     * (B) She took part in the French Revolution     * (C) She was a symbol of national unity     * (D) Her image was marked on coins and stamps     * Answer: (B) She took part in the French Revolution (Marianne is a symbolic representation, not a historical person who participated in events).
• Question: Who was the founder of the 'Young Europe' underground secret society?     * (a) Garibaldi     * (b) Mazzini     * (c) Count Cavour     * (d) Otto von Bismarck     * Answer: (b) Mazzini.