Comprehensive Notes on Child Developmental Psychology: Preschool to Younger School Age

Motor and Physical Development in Early Childhood (Class Notes: February 24, 2026)

Motor development in early childhood is categorized into gross motor skills (hrubá motorika) and fine motor skills (jemná motorika). During this period, movements are generally characterized as imprecise and short-term, with children exhibiting many unnecessary or redundant movements. A significant developmental marker is the ossification of bones (osifikácia kostí). Currently, these bones are relatively weak, which prevents children from performing demanding physical activities such as handstands (stojka). In comparison to the newborn phase, where children cannot maintain their own weight, there is a clear progression toward the abilities seen at 3 and 6 years of age (0-3-6 years).

Cognitive Development: Attention, Perception, and Memory

Cognitive development encompasses the evolution of attention, perception, and memory. Children at this stage generally react slowly. The development of fine motor skills specifically includes the correct grip of a pen, which may require specialized aids to ensure accuracy. When considering safety, such as a 4 to 5-year-old crossing a road without traffic lights, the child is often incapable of doing so safely. This is due to a lack of distance estimation; children frequently believe that cars are moving faster than they actually are.

Attention is described as weak, unstable, and involuntary. Children cannot easily shift or divide their attention between tasks. Their focus is dictated by whatever manages to catch their interest. For instance, if a cartoon is playing, a caregiver must physically stop or turn it off to redirect the child's attention to something else.

Perception is marked by uncoordinated and irregular eye movements, alongside a distorted perception of time and space. Memory is primarily involuntary, mechanical, and emotionally charged. Children do not remember things, movements, or poems systematically; rather, they retain only what captures their interest or has an emotional connection. Therefore, poems and educational materials should be chosen based on what the child finds appealing.

Developmental Characteristics of Thinking: Preschool Age

Thinking at this stage is characterized as visual or illustrative thinking (názorne myslenie), where children judge objects and phenomena based on how they appear to their senses. There is a distinct lack of logic. Specific patterns of thinking include:

Centrism: The child centers their attention on a single object, person, or toy. This makes it difficult for them to perceive a third child during play, leading them to play mostly in pairs. To manage this, an adult may need to take the child to another person or let them play alone until another child joins. Group play typically occurs only during high-activity games like chasing.

Egocentrism: This is not to be confused with selfishness. It refers to the child's inability to perceive things from an angle other than their own. They believe that whatever they see or perceive must be seen and perceived by everyone else. They are primarily focused on their own needs and may not realize when another child needs help, such as with cleaning up toys.

Phenomenonism: This is a philosophical orientation where existence is defined by sensory perceptions (phenomena). Reality is formed by what is perceived rather than the objects themselves. For example, a child may believe the moon is following them because they can see it everywhere in the sky.

Presentism and Magicity: Children live in the "here and now" (morning, lunch, evening) and do not plan for the future. They judge the past and future based on current sensations. For instance, if it is cold today, the child believes it has always been cold and will remain so forever. Magicity involves a great imagination, such as playing on a computer that is turned off or believing they possess something simply because they want it. They may invent stories that are approximately 50% truth and 50% lies, though this is not intentional deceit.

Absolutism: Children take rules absolutely seriously and believe they must be identical for everyone. This leads to frequent reporting to teachers ("žalovanie") when someone else violates a rule.

Cognitive and Emotional Development (Class Notes: March 3, 2026)

The lack of logic is further evidenced by an inability to plan, such as being unable to pack items for a trip without assistance. Causal reasoning is often flawed; a child might believe it is raining because they were disobedient, thereby connecting immediate outcomes to their own behavior. Systematic exploration is also absent, meaning a child cannot clean a room without specific, step-by-step instructions. They may attempt physically impossible tasks, such as looking for a large object inside a small container. Furthermore, children at this stage do not understand sarcasm, relativity, or pure chance.

Regarding speech development, the level of thinking often outpaces the ability to express it. Egocentric speech, or monologuing, is common. Children tell stories influenced by their own perspective, and sound pronunciation continues to develop.

Emotional development between ages 2 and 4 is marked by defiance (vzdor). While positive emotions generally prevail, there is weak emotional control and regulation. Children cannot distinguish between duty or work and play or fun. Empathy is developing, though they cannot yet distance themselves from the emotions of others. Their sense of humor is simple and often fixated on taboo or intimate topics.

Social development moves toward dyadic relationships and the development of social skills. Conflicts are often resolved physically. Children cannot distinguish between intent and accident, frequently leading to catastrophizing situations.

Cognitive and Motor Development in Younger School Age (Class Notes: March 10, 2026)

The younger school age spans from 6-7 years to 10-12 years. Cognitive functions such as attention become intentional and shiftable. Perception becomes analytical, specifically regarding phonological awareness. Time perception still requires concrete context until roughly age 8. Memory becomes intentional and mechanical, transitioning later into logical memory, though children still frequently forget their obligations.

In terms of motor skills, movements become faster, more accurate, more efficient, and better coordinated compared to the preschool age. Children remain highly active and naturally prefer running to walking.

Thinking becomes logical but remains tied to reality. It involves analysis, synthesis, decentration, sorting, comparison, and generalization. For example, they can identify similarities and differences between an elephant and an ant. However, they still do not understand negative numbers, decimal numbers, or the concept of chance, which they believe must have a clear cause. Concepts are understood literally, and they lack an understanding of sarcasm, symbolism, and metaphors. Systematic reasoning and planning begin to emerge. Visually-based stimuli are generally more understandable to them than auditory ones.

Emotional and Social Evolution in School-Aged Children

Emotionally, these children are generally positive and may experience "first loves." While they initially have a low tolerance for frustration, they eventually develop higher emotional stability. Emotional intelligence and empathy grow, allowing them to discuss their feelings, including fears regarding death, illness, or war. Despite these fears, they may still enjoy watching scary movies. Humor evolves to include jokes about taboo subjects such as death.

Socially, the relationship with the teacher is vital; children have a high need for appreciation and support from their educators. Peers become essential sources for developing self-perception. Children learn to resolve conflicts, moving from aggression toward prosocial behavior. Social groups often form based on gender, interests, or behavior patterns, and the development of social roles begins. There is a strong sense of competition ("us and them"). In modern contexts, "memes" and "brainrot" content may influence their social interactions. Bullying may occur, often driven by a child's requirement for sameness, clarity, and understandability in their peers.