EVERYTHING

24 character strengths and virtues

a classification system to identify positive traits; organized into categories of wisdom,

courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the

time.

accommodation

(1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to

focus images of near or far objects on the retina. (2) in developmental psychology,

adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and

for attaining a high standard.

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned.

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an

unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned

response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

active listening

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and seeks clarification. A

feature of Rogers’ person-centered therapy.

2805actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external

causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes. This

contributes to the fundamental attribution error (which focuses on our explanations for

others’ behavior).

acute schizophrenia

(also called reactive schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age;

frequently occurs in response to a traumatic event, and from which recovery is much

more likely.

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral

level defined by our prior experience.

addiction

an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional

behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful

consequences. (See also substance use disorder.)

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to

independence.

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate anxiety.

affiliation need

the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

agoraphobia

2806fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one may

experience a loss of control and panic.

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics.

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

amygdala

emotion.

[uh-MIG-duh-la] two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to

androgyny

displaying traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological

characteristics.

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a

starvation diet despite being significantly underweight, and has an inaccurate self-

perception; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise.

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

antianxiety drugs

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation.

2807antidepressant drugs

drugs used to treat depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive and

related disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder. (Several widely used

antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors — SSRIs.)

antipsychotic drugs

drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorders.

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior.

antisocial personality disorder

a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience

for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and

ruthless or a clever con artist.

anxiety disorders

a group of disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety and related

maladaptive behaviors.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by le hemisphere damage either to Broca’s

area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).

approach and avoidance motives

the drive to move toward (approach) or away from (avoid) a stimulus.

aptitude test

learn.

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to

asexual

having no sexual attraction toward others.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

2808association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory

functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning,

remembering, thinking, and speaking.

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in

classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

attachment

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to

caregivers and showing distress on separation.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and

impulsivity.

attitudes

feelings, oen influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular

way to objects, people, and events.

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (a

situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution).

audition

the sense or act of hearing.

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by limitations in communication

and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

autokinetic effect

the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room.

automatic processing

2809unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency,

and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word

meanings.

autonomic [aw-tuh-NAHM-ik] nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of

the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its

parasympathetic division calms.

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances

come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are

common.

aversive conditioning

associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as

drinking alcohol).

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other

neurons or to muscles or glands.

babbling stage

the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant

spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language.

barbiturates

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing

memory and judgment.

basal metabolic rate

the body’s resting rate of energy output.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to

be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

2810behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and

actions.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on

behavior.

behavior therapy

therapy that uses learning principles to reduce unwanted behaviors.

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior

without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with

(1) but not with (2).

belief perseverance

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even aer the basis on which they were

formed has been discredited.

Big Five factors

five traits — openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism —

that describe personality. (Also called the five-factor model.)

binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and

psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral

neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or

biopsychologists.)

biomedical therapy

2811prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural

levels of analysis.

bipolar disorders

a group of disorders in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and

lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-

depressive disorder.)

bipolar I disorder

the most severe form, in which people experience a euphoric, talkative, highly

energetic, and overly ambitious state that lasts a week or longer.

bipolar II disorder

a less severe form of bipolar in which people move between depression and a milder

hypomania.

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no

receptor cells are located there.

blindsight

experiencing it.

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the

brain’s integration of sensory information.

brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the

skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

broaden-and-build theory

2812proposes that positive emotions broaden our awareness, which over time helps us build

novel and meaningful skills and resilience that improve well-being.

Broca’s area

a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the le hemisphere, that helps control language

expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech.

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person’s binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) is

followed by inappropriate weight-loss-promoting behavior, such as vomiting, laxative

use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

burnout

physical, emotional, or mental exhaustion, brought on by an overburdening workload,

which may negatively impact motivation, performance, and attitude.

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are

present.

case study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in

the hope of revealing universal principles.

catharsis

in psychology, the idea that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy)

relieves aggressive urges.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory

the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf

and Gc.

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.

central executive

2813a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and

visuospatial sketchpad.

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and

arguments.

cerebellum

[sehr-uh-BELL-um] the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its

functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and

balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

cerebral [seh-REE-bruhl] cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral

hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.

character strengths and virtues

a classification system to identify positive traits; organized into categories of wisdom,

courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.

chronic schizophrenia

(also called process schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually

appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last

longer and recovery periods shorten.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; oen occurs automatically.

circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and

wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

2814classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with

Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior

(drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).

cochlea

[KOHK-lee-uh] a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling

through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory

nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and

communicating.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our

thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our

attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing

our attitudes.

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching

others, or through language.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, aer

exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition.

cognitive therapy

therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the

assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.

2815cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating

thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior).

cohort

a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period.

collective unconscious

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’

history.

collectivism

a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (oen one’s extended

family or work group).

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination

alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are

intertwined.

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age)

at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think

logically about concrete (actual, physical) events.

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary

reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

conditioned response (CR)

2816in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now

conditioned) stimulus (CS).

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, aer association with an

unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that

conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function

in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color

sensations.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or

distort contradictory evidence.

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a

study’s results.

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that

properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the

forms of objects.

2817construct validity

how much a test measures a concept or trait.

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the

experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the

treatment.

convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images.

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

cornea

the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in

many developed countries.

corpus callosum

[KOR-pus kah-LOW-sum] the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain

hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either

factor predicts the other.

2818correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).

counterconditioning

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to

stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive

conditioning.

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or

experiences produces normal development.

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it

examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates

evidence, and assesses conclusions.

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

crystallized intelligence (Gc)

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer

into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of

people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions,

to its participants.

2819deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best

retention.

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by

unconsciously distorting reality.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster

arousal and anonymity.

deinstitutionalization

the process, begun in the late twentieth century, of moving people with psychological

disorders out of institutional facilities.

déjà vu

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.

” Cues from the current situation may

unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

delusion

disorders.

a false belief, oen of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic

dendrites

a neuron’s oen bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages,

conducting impulses toward the cell body.

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when

the independent variable is manipulated.

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

2820depressive disorders

a group of disorders characterized by an enduring sad, empty, or irritable mood, along

with physical and cognitive changes that affect a person’s ability to function.

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina

are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include

measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout

the lifespan.

diathesis-stress model

the concept that genetic predispositions (diathesis) combine with environmental

stressors (stress) to influence psychological disorder.

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the

time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd).

discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned

stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus.

(In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from

similar responses that are not reinforced.) (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable

negative behavior toward a group or its members.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response aer association with

reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

dissociation

2821a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur

simultaneously with others.

dissociative amnesia

a disorder in which people with intact brains reportedly experience memory gaps;

people with dissociative amnesia may report not remembering trauma-related specific

events, people, places, or aspects of their identity and life history.

dissociative disorders

a controversial, rare group of disorders characterized by a disruption of or

discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion,

perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior.

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and

alternating personalities. (Formerly called multiple personality disorder.)

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in

different directions.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research

staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the

treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

dream

mind.

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an

organism to satisfy the need.

DSM-5-TR

the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders, Fih Edition, Text Revision; a widely used system for classifying

2822psychological disorders.

dual processing

the principle that information is oen simultaneously processed on separate conscious

and unconscious tracks.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds

and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

eclectic approach

an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy.

ecological systems theory

a theory of the social environment’s influence on human development, using five

nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem)

ranging from direct to indirect influences.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s

surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by

the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is

an active agent.

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the

more one variable can be explained by the other.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

ego

the partly conscious,

“executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates

among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality

2823principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather

than pain.

egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

a biomedical therapy for severe depression in which a brief electric current is sent

through the brain of an anesthetized person.

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences

and judgments.

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in Western

cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as

adults.

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive

behaviors, and, most importantly, (3) conscious experience resulting from one’s

interpretations.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to

emotional needs related to our stress reaction.

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that

discriminate between groups.

encoding

2824the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by

extracting meaning.

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in

helping us recall it.

endocrine [EN-duh-krin] system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that

secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

endorphins

[en-DOR-fins] “morphine within”

pain control and to pleasure.

— natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people

and things around us.

epigenetics

“above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by

which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change).

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory

systems (the other is semantic memory).

equity

to it.

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are

secreted in greater amounts by females than by males.

evidence-based practice

2825clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical

expertise and patient characteristics and preferences.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural

selection.

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and

implement goal-directed behavior.

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors

(independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the

dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to

control other relevant factors.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the

independent variable.

experimenter bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their

own beliefs.

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare.

” (Also

called declarative memory.)

exposure therapies

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure

therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imaginary or actual situations) to the

things they fear and avoid.

external locus of control

the perception that outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

2826extinction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an

unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant

conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)

extrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened

punishment.

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear,

anger, or happiness.

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test;

used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total

score.

falsifiable

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or

experiment.

family therapy

therapy that treats people in the context of their family system. Views an individual’s

unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus,

such as shape, angle, or movement.

feeding and eating disorders

a group of disorders characterized by altered consumption or absorption of food that

impairs health or psychological functioning. (Feeding disorders typically occur in

infants and young children, whereas eating disorders affect people who self-feed.)

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people’s tendency to be helpful when in a good mood.

2827fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother’s

heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-

proportion head and distinct facial features.

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their

surroundings (the ground).

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to

problem solving.

fixed mindset

the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort.

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only aer

a specified time has elapsed.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only aer

a specified number of responses.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

flow

a completely involved, focused state, with diminished awareness of self and time;

results from full engagement of our skills.

fluid intelligence (Gf)

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially

during late adulthood.

Flynn effect

the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures.

2828fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing

successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a

larger request.

forebrain

consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex

cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

formal operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age

12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.

framing

judgments.

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer

than ordinary siblings, but they share a prenatal environment.

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes

and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per

second).

frequency theory

2829in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve

matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called

temporal coding.)

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic

processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning

(such as making plans and judgments).

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration — the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal —

creates anger, which can generate aggression.

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the

impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or

allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals

traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by

information coming from the brain.

gender

in psychology, the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with

a person’s biological sex. (See also gender identity.)

gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and

female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the

social affiliation that may result from this identity.

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women.

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

2830general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases — alarm,

resistance, exhaustion.

general intelligence ( g )

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore

measured by every task on an intelligence test.

generalization

(also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a

response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit

similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation

occur in other, similar situations.)

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state

of autonomic nervous system arousal.

genes

the biochemical units of heredity.

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism.

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces

of information into meaningful wholes.

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also

play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy

for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

grammar

2831in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand

others. Semantics is the language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and

syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

gratitude

an appreciative emotion people oen experience when they benefit from other’s

actions or recognize their own good fortune.

grit

in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.

GRIT_1

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction — a strategy designed to

decrease international tensions.

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the

group.

group therapy

therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, providing benefits from group

interaction.

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making

group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

growth mindset

a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed.

gustation

our sense of taste.

habituation

2832decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with

repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

hallucinations

visual stimulus.

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external

hallucinogens

psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory

images in the absence of sensory input.

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that explores the impact of psychological, behavioral, and

cultural factors on health and wellness.

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy — a mental shortcut — that oen allows us to make

judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone

than an algorithm.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s levels of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological need. Oen

visualized as a pyramid, with needs nearer the base taking priority until they are

satisfied.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is

paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (oen weaker) conditioned

stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then

learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called

second-order conditioning.)

hindbrain

2833consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions,

such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance.

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, aer learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

(Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious)

memories — of facts and events — for storage.

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

hoarding disorder

a persistent difficulty parting with possessions, regardless of their value.

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any

aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through

the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as

the color names blue, green, and so forth.

human factors psychology

a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines

interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to

use.

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal

growth.

2834hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while

transitioning to sleep. (Also called hypnic sensations.)

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the

subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously

occur; in a therapeutic context, the hypnotist attempts to use suggestion to reduce

unpleasant physical sensations or emotions.

hypothalamus

[hi-po-THAL-uh-muss] a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the

thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body

temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward.

hypothesis

a testable prediction, oen implied by a theory.

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image

memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy

basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding

immediate gratification.

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two

genetically identical organisms.

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self

by testing and integrating various roles.

illusory correlation

2835perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual

relationship.

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of

conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being

studied.

individualism

a cultural pattern that emphasizes people’s own goals over group goals and defines

identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes.

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior

in workplaces.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize — to infer from sample data the probability

of something being true of a population.

informational social influence

influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.

informed consent

2836giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to

choose whether they wish to participate.

ingroup

“us”

— people with whom we share a common identity.

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group.

inner ear

vestibular sacs.

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an

avoidant attachment that resists closeness.

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

insight therapies

therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person’s

awareness of underlying motives and defenses.

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

instinctive dri

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed

patterns.

2837intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to

new situations.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by

100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average

performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with

those of others, using numerical scores.

intensity

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive

as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height).

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends

on another factor (such as heredity).

interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.

internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate.

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process

information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

interpretation

in psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting of supposed dream meanings, resistances, and

other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight.

intersex

possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth.

2838intimacy

in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary

developmental task in young adulthood.

intrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit,

conscious reasoning.

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and

controls the size of the pupil opening.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what

they deserve and deserve what they get.

kinesthesis

[kin-ehs-THEE-sis] our movement sense — our system for sensing the position and

movement of individual body parts.

language

our agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine

them to communicate meaning.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing)

consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or

punishing) consequences become less likely.

leadership

2839an individual’s ability to motivate and influence others to contribute to their group’s

success.

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn when

unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information

or behaviors.

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on

the retina.

lesion

[LEE-zhuhn] tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or

trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells).

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural,

for analyzing any given phenomenon.

limbic system

neural system located mostly in the forebrain — below the cerebral hemispheres — that

includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland;

associated with emotions and drives.

linguistic determinism

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

linguistic relativism

the idea that language influences the way we think.

lobotomy

a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent

patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-

2840controlling centers of the inner brain.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes

knowledge, skills, and experiences.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential aer brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis

for learning and memory.

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time.

loose culture

a place with flexible and informal norms.

major depressive disorder

a disorder in which a person experiences five or more symptoms lasting two or more

weeks, in the absence of drug use or a medical condition, at least one of which must be

either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.

mania

a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgment is common.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively

uninfluenced by experience.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then

dividing by the number of scores.

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

medical model

2841the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes

that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, oen through treatment in a

hospital.

medulla

and breathing.

[muh-DUL-uh] the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural

electrical activity.

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of

information.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

menarche

[meh-NAR-key] the first menstrual period.

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a

woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance

typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who

does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, oen a way that has been

successful in the past.

mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them.

2842meta-analysis

conclusion.

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall

metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.

midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some

motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information.

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that

concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

mindfulness meditation

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental

and accepting manner.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally

developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use),

this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

mirror neurons

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe

another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and

empathy.

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views oen held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical

and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

mnemonics

2843[nih-MON-iks] memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and

organizational devices.

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad

mood.

morpheme

(such as a prefix).

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles

and glands.

motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary

movements.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated

images of so tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

2844myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly

greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption.

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The affected person may

lapse directly into REM sleep, oen at inopportune times.

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in

a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be

passed on to succeeding generations.

naturalistic observation

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally

occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

nature–nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience

make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science views

traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported aer a close brush with death (such as

cardiac arrest); oen similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative

reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed aer a response, strengthens the

response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with

muscles, glands, and sensory organs.

2845nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve

cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

neurodevelopmental disorders

central nervous system abnormalities (usually in the brain) that start in childhood and

alter thinking and behavior (as in intellectual limitations or a psychological disorder).

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing aer damage

or by building new pathways based on experience.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by

the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor

sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a

neural impulse.

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data;

most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of

it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. (Also called a normal distribution.)

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

norms

2846a society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe

“proper” behavior in individual and social situations.

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions.

obedience

complying with an order or a command.

obesity

defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher, which is calculated

from our weight-to-height ratio. (Individuals who are overweight have a BMI of 25 or

higher.)

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

observational learning

learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions

(compulsions), or both.

occipital [ahk-SIP-uh-tuhl] lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that

receive information from the visual fields.

olfaction

our sense of smell.

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks

mostly in single words.

2847operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence.

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a

bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached

devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a

reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research

study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an

intelligence test measures. (Also known as operationalization.)

opioids

anxiety.

opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable

color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red;

others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

organizational psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that examines organizational influences on worker

satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change.

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups.

other-race effect

2848the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other

races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.

outgroup

“them”

— those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our

beliefs and judgments.

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread

in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or

other frightening sensations; oen followed by worry over a possible next attack.

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its

energy.

parietal [puh-RYE-uh-tuhl] lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it

receives sensory input for touch and body position.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response

but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the

beginning of a romantic relationship.

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy.

2849percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score.

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling

us to recognize objects and events as meaningful.

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even

inverted visual field.

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size)

even as illumination and retinal images change.

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the

rest of the body.

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s

attractiveness.

persistent depressive disorder

a disorder in which people experience a depressed mood on more days than not for at

least 2 years (formerly called dysthymia.)

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.

person-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques

such as active listening within an accepting, genuine, empathic environment to

facilitate clients’ growth. (Also called client-centered therapy.)

2850personal control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless.

personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

personality disorders

a group of disorders characterized by enduring inner experiences or behavior patterns

that differ from someone’s cultural norms and expectations, are pervasive and

inflexible, begin in adolescence or early adulthood, are stable over time, and cause

distress or impairment.

personality inventory

a questionnaire (oen with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond

to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess

selected personality traits.

personality psychology

the scientific study of personality and its development, structure, traits, processes,

variations, and disordered forms (personality disorders).

personnel psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that helps with job seeking, and with employee recruitment,

selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development.

persuasion

changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose

goes while the brain performs a given task.

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in

quick succession.

phoneme

2851in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

physiological need

a basic bodily requirement.

pitch

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s

membrane is stimulated. (Also called place coding.)

placebo [pluh-SEE-bo; Latin for “I shall please”] effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by

the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is

an active agent.

polygraph

a machine used in attempts to detect lies; measures emotion-linked changes in

perspiration, heart rate, and breathing.

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for

national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of promoting strengths and

virtues that foster well-being, resilience, and positive emotions, and that help

individuals and communities to thrive.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any

stimulus that, when presented aer a response, strengthens the response.

2852posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out aer the subject is no

longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and

behaviors.

posttraumatic growth

positive psychological changes following a struggle with extremely challenging

circumstances and life crises.

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hypervigilance, avoidance

of trauma-related stimuli, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling,

and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more aer a traumatic experience.

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is

assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

(Also called criterion-related validity.)

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members.

Prejudice generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a

predisposition to discriminatory action.

preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns

to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that

have survival value.

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

primary sex characteristics

2853the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual

reproduction possible.

priming

the activation, oen unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s

perception, memory, or response.

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly — by changing the stressor or the way we interact

with that stressor.

projective test

a personality test, such as the TAT or Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images

designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics and explore the preconscious

and unconscious mind.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype

provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing

feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow).

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods.

psychoanalysis

(1) Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious

motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by

seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions. (2) Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic

technique. Freud believed the patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and

transferences — and the analyst’s interpretations of them — released previously

repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

2854psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and the

importance of childhood experiences.

psychodynamic therapy

therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition; views individuals as responding to

unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight.

psychological disorder

a disturbance in people’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviors that causes distress or

suffering and impairs their daily lives.

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes.

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect our

immune system and resulting health.

psychopharmacology

the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their

intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

psychosurgery

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior.

psychotherapy

treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a

trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or

achieve personal growth.

2855psychotic disorders

a group of disorders marked by irrational ideas, distorted perceptions, and a loss of

contact with reality.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of

reproducing.

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

qualitative research

a research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into

numbers.

quantitative research

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing

preexisting differences between the different groups.

random sample

of inclusion.

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously

challenges people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.

recall

2856a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as

on a fill-in-the-blank test.

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a

multiple-choice test.

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered

before being stored again.

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs aer a neuron has fired;

subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the

average.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how oen a desired response will be reinforced.

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or

social standing.

2857relative deprivation

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare

ourselves.

relearning

again.

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of

scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams

commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed

(except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. (Sometimes called R

sleep.)

REM sleep behavior disorder

a sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur; instead, twitching,

talking, or even kicking or punching may occur, oen acting out one’s dream.

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in

different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match,

particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from

consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

2858resilience

the personal strength that helps people cope with stress and recover from adversity

and even trauma.

resistance

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters

information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

retina

the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones

plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes,

the brain computes distance — the greater the disparity (difference) between the two

images, the closer the object.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old

information.

retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

rods

2859retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement;

necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position

ought to behave.

Rorschach inkblot test

a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner

feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots.

rumination

compulsive fretting; overthinking our problems and their causes.

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional

specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

scaffold

in Vygotsky’s theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they

develop higher levels of thinking.

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The

slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.

The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates

high correlation).

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

2860schizophrenia spectrum disorders

a group of disorders characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking

or speech, disorganized or unusual motor behavior, and negative symptoms (such as

diminished emotional expression); includes schizophrenia and schizotypal personality

disorder.

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and

body hair.

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of

their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find

comfort in the caregiver’s return.

selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

self

in modern psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our

thoughts, feelings, and actions.

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises aer basic

physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to

fulfill one’s potential.

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question,

“Who am I?”

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term

rewards.

self-determination theory

the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and

relatedness.

2861self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others.

self-efficacy

our sense of competence and effectiveness.

self-esteem

our feelings of high or low self-worth.

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably.

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory

systems (the other is episodic memory).

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent

stimulus energies from our environment.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know

the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

sensorineural hearing loss

the most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor

cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness.

2862sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors

to the brain and spinal cord.

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food

influences its taste.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.

sequential processing

processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process

new information or to solve difficult problems.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect) and the first

items in a list aer a delay (a primacy effect).

set point

the point at which the “weight thermostat” may be set. When the body falls below this

weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost

weight.

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male,

female, and intersex.

sexual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm

someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or

2863sexual assault.

sexual orientation

according to the APA (2015),

“a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another

person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction.

”

sexuality

our thoughts, feelings, and actions related to our physical attraction to another.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer

and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while

calling) that is later stored or forgotten.

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal)

amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold

and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation,

and alertness.

single-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind)

about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

sleep

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting

from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)

2864sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and

repeated momentary awakenings.

social anxiety disorder

intense fear and avoidance of social situations.

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and

retirement.

social desirability bias

bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to

maximize benefits and minimize costs.

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and

worsened performance on difficult tasks.

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes

from our group memberships.

social leadership

group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being

rewarded or punished.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward

attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

2865social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

social trap

a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the

good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

social-cognitive perspective

a view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including

their thinking) and their social context.

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.

Also called the skeletal nervous system.

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes

body touch and movement sensations.

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when

misattributing information to a wrong source). Source amnesia, along with the

misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is

achieved through massed study or practice.

specific phobia

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific

object, activity, or situation.

2866spermarche

[sperMAR-key] the first ejaculation.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting

the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, aer a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

spotlight effect

overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and

blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the

performance of a pretested group.

Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s

original intelligence test.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between

samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations

being studied.

stereotype

people.

a generalized (sometimes accurate but oen overgeneralized) belief about a group of

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

2867stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar

environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are

observed.

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of

age.

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we

appraise as threatening or challenging.

stroboscopic movement

an illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced when viewing

a rapid series of slightly varying still images.

structured interview

an interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of

whom is rated on established scales.

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of

objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate

people’s quality of life.

subliminal

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

2868substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite significant life disruption.

superego

the partly conscious part of personality that, according to Freud, represents

internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future

aspirations.

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response

to light, the SCN adjusts melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of

sleepiness.

survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of

a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its

energy.

synapse

[SIN-aps] the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or

cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap

or synaptic cle.

systematic desensitization

a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually

increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat specific phobias.

task leadership

goals.

goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on

2869telegraphic speech

the early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram —

nouns and verbs.

“go car”

— using mostly

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory

areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also

enable language processing.

tend-and-befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) may nurture themselves and others (tend) and

bond with and seek support from others (befriend).

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during

prenatal development and cause harm.

terror-management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral

responses to reminders of their impending death.

testing effect

enhanced memory aer retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also

referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. Males and females have it, but the additional

testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal

period and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty.

thalamus

[THAL-uh-muss] the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the

brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and

transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

2870Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the

stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and

predicts behaviors or events.

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states — about their feelings,

perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

therapeutic alliance

a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work

together constructively to overcome the client’s problem.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

tight culture

a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token for exhibiting a

desired behavior and can later exchange tokens for privileges or treats.

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to

take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct

perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as

assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

2871transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or

suppress brain activity.

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of

physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses the brain can

interpret.

transference

in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other

relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).

trauma-and- stressor-related disorders

a group of disorders in which exposure to a traumatic or stressful event is followed by

psychological distress.

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks

mostly in two-word statements.

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally

aggressive, and anger-prone people.

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people.

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help

clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. (Also known as unconditional

regard.)

unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as

salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (such as food in the mouth).

2872unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically

— triggers an unconditioned response UCR).

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and

memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which

we are unaware.

universal grammar

humans’ innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern

grammar in all languages.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

(See also predictive validity.)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals.

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response aer an

unpredictable number of responses.

vestibular sense

balance.

our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of

virtual reality exposure therapy

a counterconditioning technique that treats anxiety through creative electronic

simulations in which people can safely face specific fears, such as flying, spiders, or

public speaking.

2873visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and

location in space.

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short gamma waves to the long pulses of

radio transmission.

Weber’s law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant

minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (W AIS)

the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence

tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.

Wernicke’s area

expression.

a brain area, usually in the le temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1)

incoming sensory information, and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in females and males. Females typically have two X

chromosomes; males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces

a female child.

Y chromosome

2874the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X

chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Yerkes-Dodson law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which

performance decreases.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors — one most

sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue — which, when stimulated in combination,

can produce the perception of any color.