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Memory

Introduction to Memory

• Memory is fundamental to knowing friends, language, and the self.

• Without memory, individuals would lose familiarity with people and experiences.

Definition of Memory

• Memory reflects the persistence of learning over time, involving storage and retrieval of information.

Studying Memory: Information Processing Models

Components of Memory

1. Encoding: The process of getting information into memory.

2. Storage: Retaining information over time.

3. Retrieval: Accessing information when needed.

Information Processing Model

• Analogous to a computer:

  • Keyboard: Input (Encoding)

  • Disk: Storage

  • Monitor: Output (Retrieval)

Types of Memory Storage

Stages of Memory Storage

1. Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory information.

2. Working/Short-Term Memory: Limited processing capacity (7±2 items) for about 20 seconds.

3. Long-Term Memory: Essentially unlimited capacity for retaining information.

Memory Retrieval

Processes of Retrieval

• Retrieval Cues: Assistance in retrieving memories based on associated information.

• Forgetting: Can occur due to:

  • Encoding failure

  • Storage decay

  • Retrieval failure

Memory Models

Atkinson-Schiffrin Model

• Proposes three stages of memory:

  • Sensory Memory

  • Short-Term Memory (Working Memory)

  • Long-Term Memory

Modifications to the Model

• Some information skips stages, directly entering long-term memory.

• Focus on important sensory information allows for selective processing.

Working Memory

Definition and Function

• Involves active processing of incoming and retrieved information.

Capacity Limitations

• Limited duration (about 20 seconds) and capacity (7±2 items).

• Example: Sir George Hamilton noted limitations with bean recall.

Encoding Information

Types of Encoding

1. Automatic Processing: Effortless encoding of routine information.

2. Effortful Processing: Requires attention and conscious effort, e.g., learning new information.

Cognitive Strategies for Encoding

• Rehearsal: Conscious repetition of information for better retention (Ebbinghaus's research).

• Spacing Effect: Distributing practice over time yields better recall.

• Serial Position Effect: Better recall of first and last items in a list compared to middle items.

Encoding Techniques

Encoding by Meaning

• Associating new information with what is already known enhances retention (semantic encoding).

Visual Encoding

• Using mental imagery to enhance memory.

• Combining visual information with semantic encoding can improve recall.

Mnemonics

• Techniques utilizing imagery and organizational strategies to facilitate memory.

• Example: chunking information into units for easier recall (e.g., using acronyms like HOMES).

Hierarchies

• Organizing information into broad concepts and subdividing into categories to enhance understanding.

Memory Storage

Types of Memory Storage

• Sensory Memory: Initial storage of sensory information (e.g., iconic memory lasts 0.5 seconds).

• Working Memory: Short-term holding of information for processing; limited capacity and duration.

• Long-Term Memory: Store of potentially unlimited information.

  • Example: Clark's nutcracker can recall large amounts of information.

Stress and Memory

Effects of Stress Hormones

• Emotions can strengthen memory formation.

• Flashbulb memories are strong, detailed recollections of significant events.

Types of Memories

Explicit and Implicit Memories

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of facts and experiences.

• Implicit Memory: Learning actions without conscious awareness of what is known.

Role of the Hippocampus

• Processes explicit memories but is involved in forming new memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

• Conditions like patient HM, who can't form new explicit memories but can learn skills (procedural memory).

Memory Retrieval Techniques

Getting Information Out

• Retrieval relies on associations held in memory.

• Priming: Activating strands in the memory network to access specific memories.

State-Dependent Memory

• Recall is more effective when a person's mood matches the emotional state during encoding.

Forgetting

Causes of Forgetting

1. Encoding Failure: Inability to remember what was never encoded.

2. Storage Decay: Memories fading over time without use.

3. Retrieval Failure: Memories retained but inaccessible.

Interference Effects

• Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with new learning.

• Retroactive Interference: New learning disrupts recall of old information.

Improving Memory

Techniques to Enhance Memory

1. Repetition: Boost long-term retention through frequent study.

2. Personal Connection: Make the material personally meaningful.

3. Use of Mnemonics: Employ memory aids such as acronyms and storytelling.

4. Activating Retrieval Cues: Recreate the context when learning.

5. Timely Recall: Recall information while fresh, avoiding misinformation.

6. Minimize Interference: Test knowledge to identify gaps and reinforce learning.