Kant's Formulations

First Formulation

“Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law without contradiction.”


Contradiction In Conception

We ought to only act on a maxim if its logically possible to be acted upon universally. Hence why it’s called the Test of Universalizability.

Ex. Stealing

Contraception in Will

P1) A will by definition, wills its goals

P2) To truly will the ends, one must will the necessary means

C1) We cannot rationally will a situation where it would be impossible for us to effectively cease to will any ends at all. To do so is to cease to will the necessary means to one’s ends which is effectively to cease to will any ends at all. This contradicts the very act of willing

P3) It is possible that the only available means to our ends involves help of others

C2) We cannot will that this possibility is denied to us

C3) We cannot will a situation where no one ever helps anyone else.

Applied Ethics: Lying

Lying is a Contradiction in Conception, as it erodes the concept of truth and trust which you disregard in the act. It is also a Contradiction in Will, as you will need information at some point to achieve your ends - and knowledge must be true which assumes a basis for truth etc.

This imperfect duty isn’t actually necessary, as we already formed a perfect duty from the First Formulation - we must never lie.


Second Formulation

“Act in such a way that you always treat humanity […] never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.”

Don’t use people.

Everyone has their own end (goals) in life so if you treat them as if they are only a means to your end then you are failing to acknowledge that they have their own end, which would be irrational. 

  • We have intrinsic worth as rational autonomous beings

  • People are ends in themselves (Rational, Autonomous Beings)

  • Involves allowing them to exercise their rationality

  • We cannot use RA beings “simply” as a means, undermining rationality and using them for your own gain

  • treating them as means but also as an end-in-themselves is okay and involves helping each other to pursue our own ends (both parties end)

Ex. being waited on in a restaurant.

  • Technically you are treating the waiter as a means.

  • However, Kant says this is acceptable according to the 2nd formulation so long as they are also treated at the same time as an end.

  • You’re still treating them as if they have their own end in choosing to be a waiter and wait on you.

  • This requires that you treat the waiter with respect.

Applied Ethics: Lying

Doesn’t allow them to exercise their rationality, as they cannot make an informed choice if they’re being misled or decieved. To choose to lie is using our own rationality and autonomy, so contradicts denying others of this, as logically we are all equal.

Treating someone as a means is to undermine their power of making a rational choice themselves.