Comprehensive Study Notes on the Mughal Empire and Administration

Foundation of the Mughal Empire and Babur (1526–1530)

• Establishment of Mughal Rule:

  • The Mughal dynasty was founded in India following Babur's victory in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.
  • Babur occupied Delhi and established Agra as the capital of the Mughal Empire.

• Military Conquests of Babur:

  • 1527: Babur defeated Rana Sanga and his confederacy of allies at the Battle of Khanwa.
  • 1528: Babur prevailed against the Rajput chief of Chanderi.
  • 1529: Babur defeated the Afghan chiefs of Bengal and Bihar.
  • 1530: Babur died before he could fully consolidate his territorial victories.

• Literary and Scholarly Pursuits:

  • Babur was an accomplished scholar in both the Turkish and Persian languages.
  • He recorded comprehensive impressions of Hindustan, including observations of its animals, plants, trees, flowers, and fruits, in his autobiography titled Tuzuk-i-Baburi.

• Succession:

  • Babur followed the imperial tradition established by Chengiz Khan of nominating the most deserving among his sons as heir.
  • Babur chose his eldest and favourite son, Humayun, to succeed him.

Reign of Humayun and the Sur Dynasty Interregnum

• Humayun's First Reign (1530–1540):

  • Upon ascending the throne, Humayun partitioned the empire according to his father's will, allocating a province to each of his three brothers: Kamran, Hindal, and Askari.
  • Despite receiving provincial territories, each brother actively aspired to seize the imperial throne of Delhi.
  • Humayun faced severe external rivalry, notably from the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Sur, who governed Bihar and Bengal.

• The Rise and Reign of Sher Shah Sur (1540–1545):

  • Sher Shah was the son of Hasan Suri, an Afghan noble who ruled Sasaram in Bihar.
  • Sher Shah defeated Humayun in two decisive engagements:
  • The Battle of Chausa in 1539.
  • The Battle of Kanauj in 1540.
  • Following Humayun's defeat and overthrow, Sher Shah established the Sur dynasty at Agra.
  • Sher Shah's imperial domain extended from Bengal across to the Indus River, excluding Kashmir.
  • Sher Shah instituted an efficient land revenue system that served as a model for subsequent administrations.
  • He built an extensive network of roads and standardized the currency, weights, and measures.
  • In Delhi, Sher Shah probably destroyed Humayun's palace Din-i-Panah and constructed the Purana Qila in its place.
  • Sher Shah's most prominent architectural monument is his mausoleum located at Sasaram in Bihar.

• Humayun's Exile, Restoration, and Death (1555–1556):

  • Overthrown by Sher Shah, Humayun fled India and sought refuge in Iran.
  • Supported by the Persian ruler Shah Tahmasp of the Safavid dynasty, Humayun recaptured Delhi in 1555.
  • Humayun's restored rule was short-lived; he died in 1556 after falling down the stairs of his royal library in Delhi.

Akbar the Great: Accession, Expansion, and Administration (1556–1605)

• Accession to the Throne and Regency:

  • Upon the sudden death of Humayun in 1556, his 14-year-old son Akbar was crowned king.
  • Bairam Khan, Humayun's trusted general, served as regent and conducted governance on behalf of the minor monarch.
  • In 1556, Hemu, a general of the Sur dynasty, captured Agra and Delhi.
  • Later that same year, Bairam Khan confronted, defeated, and killed Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556).
  • Bairam Khan was later murdered in Gujarat, allegedly at the instigation of Akbar, who was unwilling to tolerate Bairam Khan's continuing dominance in governance.
  • Following Bairam Khan's removal, Akbar assumed direct and complete authority over the imperial government.

• Conquests of Women Rulers:

  • Akbar conquered Malwa and territories across Central India.
  • He launched an aggressive campaign against Rani Durgavati, the ruler of the Central Province; her defeat is historically noted as unjustified by any aggression on her part, driven solely by Akbar's expansionist imperial ambition.
  • In South India, Akbar confronted the famous Rani Chand Bibi, regent of Ahmednagar.
  • The spirited resistance put up by Rani Chand Bibi so impressed the Mughal commanders that they granted her favourable peace terms.

• Campaigns in Rajputana and the Battle of Haldighati:

  • In 1568, Akbar defeated Rana Uday Singh of Mewar and captured the fortress of Chittoor.
  • In 1569, Akbar captured the fortress of Ranthambore.
  • In 1576, Mughal forces defeated Rana Pratap (son of Rana Uday Singh) at the Battle of Haldighati.
  • Despite the defeat, Rana Pratap escaped the battlefield on his horse, Chetak, and retreated into the jungles to maintain sustained guerilla warfare.
  • The memory and valour of Rana Pratap are deeply revered throughout Rajputana, inspiring extensive regional folklore.

• Trade Routes and Global Commercial Access:

  • Arabia and Europe: Akbar's conquest of Gujarat secured direct Mughal control over Gujarat's maritime trade network, connecting to Arab and European merchants.
  • Southeast Asia and China: Campaigns through East Bihar and Odisha, coupled with the conquest of Bengal, opened direct overland and maritime access to China and Southeast Asia.

• North-West Campaigns (1585–1605) and Deccan Expansion:

  • Akbar launched military campaigns across the North-West, annexing Kandahar, Kashmir, and Kabul into the empire.
  • Military campaigns in the Deccan brought about the annexation of Berar, Khandesh, and portions of Ahmednagar.
  • At its territorial peak under Akbar, the Mughal Empire stretched:
  • From Kashmir in the north to the Godavari River in the south.
  • From Kandahar in the west to Bengal in the east.
  • Akbar died in 1605, and his mortal remains were entombed at Sikandra near Agra.

Akbar's Religious Policy and Cultural Patronage

• Reconciliation and Religious Integration:

  • Akbar operated on the principle that territorial gains won through affection were far more durable than conquests won through the sword.
  • He actively pursued the goodwill of Hindu nobility and the broader Hindu population.
  • He abolished the jizya (poll tax levied on non-Muslim subjects) and eliminated the pilgrim tax on Hindus.
  • Akbar married into a noble Rajput family and subsequently arranged the marriage of his son to a Rajput princess.
  • High-ranking administrative and military appointments were granted to Hindu nobles; Raja Man Singh of Jaipur was appointed governor of Kabul.
  • Akbar extended reverence to diverse spiritual leaders, including the Sufi saint Salim Chishti and the fourth Sikh Guru, Guru Ramdas.
  • He granted Guru Ramdas a plot of land in Amritsar, where the Sikh shrine Harmandir Sahib was subsequently constructed.

• Ibadat Khana and Din-i-Ilahi:

  • At his newly constructed capital city of Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar established the Ibadat Khana, a ceremonial discussion hall where scholars from diverse religious traditions engaged in theological debates.
  • Portuguese Christian missionaries were treated as great favourites within Akbar's court.
  • Akbar synthesized the positive moral doctrines of various faiths into a unified ethical system termed Din-i-Ilahi ("Divine Faith").

• Cultural and Intellectual Patronage:

  • Akbar amassed an imperial personal library holding over $4,000$ manuscripts.
  • He patronized scholars, thinkers, and artists of all faiths, including:
  • Writers and historians: Abul Fazl, Abul Faizi, and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
  • Wit and storyteller: Birbal.
  • Competent statesmen and administrators: Raja Todar Mal, Raja Bhagwan Das, and Raja Man Singh.
  • Master musician and composer: Tansen.
  • Renowned painter: Daswant.

Reign of Jahangir (1605–1627)

• Accession and Court Politics:
  • Akbar was succeeded by Prince Salim, his son through a Rajput wife, who assumed the imperial title Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir ("Conqueror of the World").
  • Jahangir displayed greater personal interest in art, painting, gardens, and flora than in the direct day-to-day administration of the state.
  • As a consequence, his wife, Mehr-un-nisa (conferred the title Nur Jahan), held actual political authority and functioned as the real power behind the throne.
  • Jahangir generally maintained his father's policy of religious toleration.

• Conflict with the Sikhs and Territorial Reversals:

  • Jahangir ordered the execution of the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun (or Arjan), on charges of aiding his rebellious son Prince Khusrau during Khusrau's bid for the throne.
  • Guru Arjun's execution initiated an era of prolonged military confrontation between the Sikh community and the Mughal state.
  • In the North-West, the Mughals lost control of Kandahar, compromising the overland trade routes leading to Afghanistan, Persia, and Central Asia, and exposing northern India to foreign invasions.
  • In the Deccan, although Ahmednagar was conquered by Jahangir, it remained a persistent source of military instability throughout his reign.

• European Trade Concessions:

  • Jahangir granted formal trading rights first to the Portuguese and later to the English.
  • Sir Thomas Roe, arriving as the accredited ambassador of King James I of England, attended Jahangir's court.
  • This diplomatic mission secured formal commercial pacts, clearing the path for the English East India Company to establish its first trading factory in Surat.

Reign of Shah Jahan (1627–1658)

• Accession and Territorial Campaigns:
  • Following an armed struggle for succession after Jahangir's death, Prince Khurram ascended the throne under the regal name Shah Jahan ("King of the World"), ruling for thirty years.
  • In 1632, Shah Jahan led a major military campaign against Ahmednagar, culminating in its formal annexation into the empire.
  • Shah Jahan subsequently subjugated the Deccan sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.

• Maratha Resistance and Deccan Friction:

  • Prominent Maratha commanders, most notably Shahji Bhonsle (the father of Shivaji), enlisted in the military services of the Deccan sultanates.
  • Shahji Bhonsle trained bands of Maratha warriors in guerilla tactics to resist Mughal encroachment, establishing sustained regional military resistance.

• Religious Policy and Imperial Climax:

  • Shah Jahan diverged from the open tolerance of Akbar by displaying religious intolerance toward non-Islamic faiths, despite continuing broader cultural and architectural traditions.
  • His reign represented the absolute zenith of Mughal architectural grandeur and material splendour.

• War of Succession and Imprisonment:

  • In 1657, Shah Jahan fell seriously ill, triggering a violent war of succession among his four sons: Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Murad Baksh, and Aurangzeb.
  • Aurangzeb emerged victorious after executing his three brothers.
  • Aurangzeb deposed his father and imprisoned Shah Jahan in the Shah Burj of the Agra Fort, where the former emperor spent the final eight years of his life until his death.

Reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

• Accession and Royal Demeanour:

  • Aurangzeb, recognized as the last of the "Great Mughals," seized the throne by imprisoning his father in 1658 and ruled for 48 years.
  • He assumed the imperial title Alamgir ("the Conqueror of the World").
  • Unlike his grandfather Jahangir, Aurangzeb held no passion for painting and natural beauty, and unlike his father Shah Jahan, he showed little interest in architectural patronage.

• Religious Policy:

  • Aurangzeb rejected the liberal and syncretic policies of his predecessors, refusing to tolerate religions other than orthodox Islam.
  • He re-imposed the jizya tax on Hindu subjects and reinstated the pilgrim tax.
  • He systematically excluded Hindus from imperial administrative offices as far as possible.
  • These rigid policies alienated large segments of the population and generated broad domestic hostility against imperial rule.

• Rebellions and Regional Wars:

  • Northern Rebellions (1658–1681): Aurangzeb remained stationed in northern India for over two decades suppressing successive armed uprisings by the Bundelas, Jats, Satnamis, and Sikhs.
  • North-East Frontier: Mughal expansionism precipitated protracted conflict with the Ahoms of Kamarupa (Assam); despite repeated Mughal incursions, the Ahom kingdom was never completely subdued.
  • Rajput Friction: Aurangzeb's hostility sparked prolonged conflicts with the Rajput states.
  • Rebellion of Prince Akbar: Aurangzeb's son, Prince Akbar, rebelled against him, allied with the Rajput armies, and entered into an alliance in the Deccan with Shambuji (son of Shivaji).

• Deccan Campaigns and the Maratha Struggle:

  • In 1689, Aurangzeb marched south to the Deccan to crush the combined threat of the rebel prince, the Deccan kingdoms, and the Marathas.
  • Aurangzeb forced the submission and annexation of the sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
  • In 1674, Shivaji had formally carved out an independent state, proclaiming himself Emperor of the Maratha State.
  • Aurangzeb was unable to halt Shivaji's territorial rise across south-western India.
  • After Shivaji's death, Aurangzeb defeated Shivaji's son and successor, Shambuji, capturing and executing him.
  • Aurangzeb remained permanently entrenched in the Deccan, conducting relentless warfare until his death in 1707 at nearly $90$ years of age.

• Establishment of European Enclaves:

  • By the conclusion of Aurangzeb's reign, European commercial footholds had expanded across the Indian coast:
  • British Fortified Trade Centres: Madras (Chennai), Calcutta (Kolkata), and Bombay (Mumbai).
  • French Trade Capital: Pondicherry (Puducherry).

Mughal Administration

• Central Administrative Structure:

  • The Mughal administrative structure provided a centralized and durable government across major portions of the subcontinent.
  • The Emperor was the absolute head of state, functioning as supreme lawmaker, chief executive, commander-in-chief of all military forces, and final arbiter of justice.
  • The Emperor was advised by an imperial council of ministers, which included key dignitaries:
  • Wakil: Prime Minister.
  • Wazir (or Diwan): Chief minister overseeing state revenues and public expenditures.
  • Mir Bakshi (or Mir Bhakshi): Minister in charge of the military department, army payroll, and inspections.
  • Mir Saman: Official in charge of the imperial household and palace affairs.
  • Qazi: Chief Judge of the imperial judicial apparatus.
  • Sadr-us-Sudr: High minister overseeing religious endowments and enforcing Islamic law (Sharia).

• Provincial Administration:

  • The empire was divided into provinces designated as Subhas.
  • Each Subha was governed by an imperial governor termed a Subedar.
  • Subhas were subdivided into administrative districts known as Sarkars.
  • Sarkars were further partitioned into sub-districts named Parganas.
  • Each Pargana comprised a cluster of individual villages (Gramas).

• Local Administration:

  • Urban Centres: Municipal administration of towns and cities was directed by Kotwals, who were tasked with maintaining law, order, and municipal oversight.
  • Rural Villages: Village administration remained decentralized under customary village panchayats, serving as informal community courts.
  • Justice at the village level was adjudicated directly by the Panchayatdars (bodies of community jurors).

• The Military Apparatus:

  • The Mughal army consisted of four traditional divisions: infantry, cavalry, war elephants, and modern artillery.
  • The Emperor retained a large, specialized contingent of highly trained, fully armed personal bodyguards and palace guards.

• The Mansabdari System:

  • Introduced by Akbar, the Mansabdari system integrated the aristocracy, civil administrators, and military officers into a unified imperial service hierarchy.
  • Every official entering the service received a mansab, denoting a specific rank or administrative position; the holder was styled a Mansabdar.
  • A Mansabdar's standing was determined by two specific numeric indices:
  • Zat: Reflected personal status, rank, and base salary.
  • Sawar: Determined the exact quota of cavalrymen and horses the official was required to maintain.
  • Imperial compensation scaled according to the designated size of military contingents, which ranged from $10$ to $10,000$ soldiers.
  • Mansabdars received substantial salaries from the imperial treasury.
  • Prior to receiving pay, a Mansabdar had to present his muster of cavalrymen for official review.
  • Horses were branded with imperial marks (dagh) to prevent fraud and substitution.
  • The Emperor possessed the legal prerogative to summon and mobilize the military forces of any Mansabdar at will.
  • Under Akbar, the rank of Mansabdar was non-hereditary; however, following his reign, the rank evolved into a hereditary title.

Land Revenue Administration

• The Zabt System of Raja Todar Mal:

  • Akbar comprehensively overhauled land revenue administration through his Revenue Minister, Raja Todar Mal.
  • Raja Todar Mal adopted, modernized, and perfected the prior revenue survey mechanisms pioneered by Sher Shah.
  • Todar Mal implemented the Zabt system across the northern and north-western provinces.
  • Under the Zabt system, all cultivable lands underwent cadastral surveys and were classified into categories according to soil fertility and the nature of the crop.
  • The state's revenue demand was fixed at one-third ($\frac{1}{3}$) of the average produce calculated over a $10$-year period.
  • During the reign of Shah Jahan, the Zabt (or Zabti) framework was extended into the Deccan provinces.

• The Jagirdari and Revenue Collection System:

  • Mughal rulers retained and modified the Sultanate-era iqta land tenure framework, renaming it the jagir system.
  • Under this system, the right to collect fiscal revenues from a designated territory, along with the authority to administer it, was conferred upon a military or civil officer styled a Jagirdar.
  • Any Mansabdar who was not disbursed a cash salary from the imperial treasury was awarded a jagir as compensation.
  • The Jagirdar extracted land revenues through his personally appointed officials.
  • In the district administration, the principal imperial revenue officer was the Amal Guzar, who was assisted by subordinate field officials:
  • Potdar: District treasury officer.
  • Qanungo: Keeper of land records and revenue accounts.
  • Patwari: Village accountant maintaining agricultural ledgers.
  • Muqaddams: Village headmen assisting in direct revenue assessment.

• The Role of Zamindars:

  • Individuals commissioned to collect agrarian levies from tenant cultivators and landholders were designated zamindars.
  • Zamindars enforced tax collection and preserved public order with the assistance of local Mughal detachments and soldiers.
  • Regional hereditary chieftains and petty monarchs were similarly classified under the broad administrative rubric of zamindars.
  • By the end of the sixteenth century, zamindars received hereditary legal rights over their respective zamin (land).
  • Zamindars were legally authorized to muster and command armed troops solely for enforcing revenue extraction.

• Suyurghal Lands:

  • The Emperor reserved the authority to make charitable land grants to scholars, theologians, holy men, and religious institutions.
  • These dedicated institutional and religious endowments were classified as suyurghal and were completely tax-free.

Mughal Art and Architecture

• Architectural Contributions Under Babur and Sher Shah:

  • Babur introduced Persian architectural aesthetics and landscape styling to India, commissioning monuments at Agra, Biana, Dholpur, Gwalior, and Kiul (Aligarh), though only a fraction survive.
  • Sher Shah Sur built his multi-tiered tomb situated in the middle of an artificial lake at Sasaram in Bihar, and erected the Purana Qila fortress at Delhi.

• Monuments of Akbar's Reign:

  • Akbar combined Persian, Timurid, and Indian structural traditions, sponsoring large complexes constructed primarily of red sandstone.
  • Major constructions of his era include:
  • Diwan-i-Khas: Imperial Hall of Private Audience.
  • Diwan-i-Am: Imperial Hall of Public Audience.
  • Panch Mahal: A five-story pyramidal palace structure.
  • Rang Mahal: Palace pavilion within royal complexes.
  • Salim Chishti's Tomb: Intricately carved marble tomb erected in tribute to the Sufi saint at Fatehpur Sikri.
  • Buland Darwaza: Massive ceremonial triumphal gateway constructed at Fatehpur Sikri to commemorate Akbar's conquest of Gujarat.

• Architectural Additions Under Jahangir:

  • Jahangir brought to completion Akbar's grand multi-tiered mausoleum at Sikandara near Agra.
  • He oversaw the construction of the tomb of Itmad-ud-daula (the father of Empress Nur Jahan) at Agra, marked by white marble and fine pietra dura inlay.

• Climax of Imperial Splendour Under Shah Jahan:

  • Shah Jahan's reign represented the peak of Mughal architectural sophistication, replacing red sandstone with carved white marble and precious gems.
  • The Peacock Throne: A ceremonial jewel-encrusted gold throne constructed for the imperial court.
  • The Taj Mahal: World-renowned white marble mausoleum erected along the banks of the Yamuna River at Agra.
  • Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque): White marble mosque situated inside the Agra Fort.
  • Jama Masjid of Delhi: One of the largest congregational mosques in the Indian subcontinent.
  • Shahjahanabad Palatial Structures: The imperial palaces of Delhi containing marble iterations of the Diwan-i-Khas and Diwan-i-Am.
  • The Red Fort (Lal Qila): Constructed in Delhi beginning in 1639 as the primary palace of Shah Jahan's newly planned fortified capital, Shahjahanabad, named for its towering perimeter walls of red sandstone.

• Architecture Under Aurangzeb:

  • Architectural patronage declined sharply during the reign of Aurangzeb due to his religious austerity and fiscal strain.
  • The notable monument of his era is the Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad, a mausoleum commissioned by Aurangzeb's son, Prince Azam Shah, in the late seventeenth century as a loving tribute to his mother.