02 Legislatures and executives

Political Institutions and Constitutions

Polity

• Definition: The framework of political institutions that forms the "skeleton" of a political system

• Includes all rules, organizations, bodies, and organs of political authority

Constitutions

• Broad Definition: A set of written and unwritten rules that

  • Establish the duties, powers, and functions of various state institutions

  • Regulate relationships between state institutions (system of government)

  • Define relationships between the state and citizens (rights and duties)

• Narrow Definition: A supreme or fundamental law that acts as the highest legal authority

  • Contents include:

    • Structure of government

    • State symbols

    • Main political institutions

    • Formal separation of powers

    • Rights and duties of citizens

    • Amendment procedures

• Protection of Constitutions:

  • Difficult to modify, often requiring qualified majority or referendum

  • Involvement of Constitutional Courts

The Three Branches of Power

• Legislative (makes laws)

• Executive (implements laws)

• Judiciary (interprets laws)

Variety of Constitutions

• Oldest active codified constitution: USA (1789)

• Most recent constitution: Chad (2023)

• Shortest: Monaco (3814 words)

• Longest: India (146,385 words)

• Stability Rankings:

  • USA: Most stable (27 amendments over 235 years)

  • Mexico: Least stable (227 amendments in 107 years)

• Entrenched Clauses:

  • Universal values (human rights, democracy)

  • Particularistic features (sovereignty, separation of powers)

Legislatures

• General Definition: Parliaments or Congresses comprised of elected representatives

• Types:

  • Unicameral (single chamber)

  • Bicameral (two chambers)

• Functions of Legislatures:

  • Representation and law-making

  • Government formation and oversight (in non-presidential systems)

• Structure:

  • Both plenary and committee systems

  • Political groups/factions play a role

Executives: Definition and Types

• Definitions:

  • Broader: Implementation of laws and policies

  • Narrower: Political executive that decides/runs policy

• Types of Leadership:

  • Unitary (head of state = head of government)

  • Divided (distinct head of state and head of government)

• Ways in which executive leaders can be selected:

  • Hereditary (monarchy)

  • Election (presidency)

Executives: Structure and Functions

• Structure:

  • Composed of heads (president, prime minister) and ministers

• Functions:

  • Execution of laws

  • Political planning and management

  • Diplomatic roles and conduct of foreign policy

Systems of Government

• Types:

  • Parliamentary

  • Presidential

  • Chancellor-type

  • Semi-presidential

• Definitions:

  • Structure of the executive defines the governmental system

Parliamentary Systems

• Legislature holds supremacy:

  • The executive is accountable to parliament

• Political mechanisms:

  • Vote of confidence, question sessions, motions of no-confidence

• Examples:

  • UK model

Presidential Systems

• Unitary executive led by an independently elected president

• Broad powers concentrated in the presidency

• USA as a distinct model with checks and balances

Chancellor-type Systems

• Originated in Germany through the Bonn Constitution

• Features:

  • Elevated position of the prime minister

  • Limited accountability of ministers

Semi-presidential Systems

• Blend of presidential and parliamentary systems

• Divided executive responsibilities

• Challenges of cohabitation between president and parliament

Summary of the Systems of Government

• Comparison of presidential, parliamentary, chancellor-type, and semi-presidential systems across various criteria

Swiss Directorial System

• Characterized by a powerful canton structure

• Features:

  • Joint exercise of executive power by a Federal Council

  • Elected by parliament

• Unique governance by consensus and rotating leadership