Study Guide on American Intervention and the Mexican Revolution

Chapter 26: Varieties of Imperialism in Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and Latin America, 1750-1914

Section 26-4d: American Intervention in the Caribbean and Central America, 1901-1914

  • Overview:

    • American intervention was extensive in Central America and the Caribbean beyond just Mexico.

    • The small and impoverished nations in these regions had governments that were often corrupt, unstable, or bankrupt, which led to frequent foreign interference.

  • Economic Practices and Foreign Interference:

    • Local governments borrowed money for development (railroads, harbors, electric power).

    • Failure to repay loans led to intervention threats from European banks.

    • To mitigate these threats, the U.S. sometimes intervened militarily.

  • Presidential Policies:

    • Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909):

    • Advocated for supporting friendly regimes.

    • William Taft (1909–1913):

    • Focused on economic influence through loans from American banks.

    • Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921):

    • Emphasized moral diplomacy, sought to impose orderly governments through military interventions.

  • Cuban Intervention:

    • After liberating Cuba from Spain, the U.S. forced acceptance of the Platt Amendment (1901):

    • Allowed U.S. intervention to maintain order in Cuba, leading to military occupations from 1906-1909, 1912, and 1917-1922.

    • Effectively turned Cuba into an American protectorate.

  • Interventions in Other Nations:

    • Dominican Republic: U.S. occupation from 1904–1907 and again in 1916.

    • Nicaragua and Honduras: Interventions in 1912.

    • Haiti: Occupied in 1915.

    • While American forces brought sanitation and material progress, they did not implement political reform.

  • Panama Canal:

    • Panama was previously a province of Colombia; the U.S. needed the canal for strategic military advantages between oceans.

    • Colombia refused to lease land for the canal, leading the U.S. to support a Panamanian rebellion in 1903.

    • Panama was recognized as an independent nation, allowing U.S. to build the canal under a treaty that included a 5-mile zone on either side.

    • Construction began in 1904; the canal opened on August 15, 1914, greatly reducing travel time between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.

Section Review

  • Key Points:

    • The Spanish-American War established Cuba as an informal American protectorate.

    • Economic investments from Britain and the U.S. developed infrastructure in Latin America.

    • Economic disparities led to revolutions, notably Mexico's, culminating in a new constitution after a decade of violence.

    • U.S. interventions culminated with the construction of the Panama Canal.

Section 26-4c: Revolution and Civil War in Mexico

  • Societal Division:

    • By the early 20th century, Mexican society was sharply divided between the wealthy elite and the impoverished majority, comprising various ethnic backgrounds (Spanish, Indigenous, Mestizo).

    • A small percentage of the population owned a majority of the land, creating high levels of poverty among the rural population, especially Indigenous peoples and landless Mestizos.

  • Land Ownership and Economic Control:

    • Post-independence from 1821, foreign and local elite interests used coercion to acquire agricultural lands, forcing peasants into hacienda labor and perpetual debt through exploitative store credit practices.

  • Porfirio Díaz’s Dictatorship (1876–1910):

    • Ruled with the motto: "Liberty, Order, Progress."

    • Understood as promoting freedoms for the elite and foreign investors at the expense of the general populace. He maintained order through corrupt practices.

    • Progress resulted in urban modernization (paved streets, electric lighting) but without addressing social inequities.

    • Díaz aimed to dismantle Indigenous culture, favoring European lifestyle and cuisine over traditional Mexican customs, sparking discontent among the educated middle class.

  • Mexican Revolution:

    • A series of revolts beginning in 1910, primarily aimed at reducing social inequalities and establishing constitutional governance, led to various factions emerging under different leaders.

    • Francisco I. Madero: Initially led the uprising against Díaz, eventually assassinated, leading to further instability.

    • Victoriano Huerta: Emerged from Madero’s ranks, orchestrating a coup, leading to U.S. intervention when instability ensued (Veracruz, 1914).

  • Regional Leaders:

    • Emiliano Zapata: Fought for land reform in Morelos, leading a peasant army.

    • Pancho Villa: Led a cavalry army in the north, focusing on agrarian reform.

    • Both enjoyed popular support but were confined to regional power dynamics against more organized constitutionalists.

  • Constitutionalists Success:

    • Venustiano Carranza and Alvaro Obregón: Gained military and political power over Huerta's regime.

    • Adopted many popular reforms to unite support against the elite.

    • The new Constitution of 1917 outlined key reforms: presidential term limits, economic nationalism, improved labor rights, and reduced church power.

    • In practice, U.S. and elite interests prevented full enactment of these reforms.

  • Carranza to Obregón Transition:

    • After being elected, Carranza faced opposition and was ultimately overthrown by Obregón, demonstrating the ongoing instability.

Section 26-4b: Economic Imperialism

  • Post-Independence Challenges:

    • Latin America achieved independence but faced difficulties in industrialization, maintaining unstable governments and economic dependencies on foreign investments.

  • Economic Landscape:

    • Despite having vast agricultural and mineral wealth, the failure to develop internal infrastructure and industrialization hampered economic independence.

    • Railroads established largely by foreign investments did not sufficiently integrate internal markets, benefitting mainly landowners and foreign investors.

  • Case Study - Argentina:

    • Possessed the longest rail network south of the U.S., dominated by British ownership and management. By 1914, 86% of the network was British-owned, indicating a significant foreign influence in its economy.

  • Political Dynamics:

    • Latin American elites sought foreign investments for modernization, often at the expense of broader population benefits, resulting in continued inequality and lack of development.

Section 26-4a: American Expansionism and the Spanish-American War, 1898

  • Prelude to War:

    • U.S. investments in Cuban sugar and tobacco fueled interest in Cuba, leading to pressure for intervention against Spanish rule.

    • Cuban nationalist José Martí's revolt sparked increased American military presence as conflicts escalated.

  • Maine Incident:

    • The sinking of the battleship Maine on February 15, 1898, became a catalyst, as media and politicians blamed Spain, instigating public support for war.

  • Outcomes of the War:

    • The war was fought quickly, leading to significant territorial gains for the U.S. as Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

    • Cuba gained nominal independence but remained under U.S. influence, setting precedent for future interventions.