Final Review- Bio121

Anabolism: Chemical reactions that build large molecules from small ones.
Catabolism: Breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy.

Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom.
Atomic Mass: Total number of protons and neutrons.
Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell.
Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons between atoms.
Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons between atoms.
Cation: Positively charged (loses an electron).
Anion: Negatively charged (gains an electron).
Water: Polar bond due to unequal sharing of electrons. Cohesion allows for surface tension and water transport in plants. Ice floats as it is less dense than water.
Dehydration Synthesis: Bonds monomers by losing water; Hydrolysis reverses this process.
Carbon: Can form diverse large molecules due to its 4 valence electrons.
Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.
Structural Isomers: Different arrangements of atoms.
Cis-Trans Isomers: Geometric variations around double bonds.
Ester Bond: Connects fatty acids to glycerol in triglycerides.
Glycosidic Bond: Connects sugars and starches.

Cell Types:
- Prokaryotic Cells: Lack a nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
- Eukaryotic Cells: Contain a nucleus (e.g., plants, animals).
Endomembrane System: Includes nucleus, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles for protein and lipid synthesis and transport.
Energy Organelles:
- Mitochondria: Convert food's chemical energy into ATP.
- Chloroplasts: Perform photosynthesis, converting solar energy into stored chemical energy.
- Both evolved by endosymbiosis—originally from prokaryotic cells.
Cytoskeleton: Network of protein fibers supporting cell shape, facilitating movement, and guiding transport.

Plasma Membrane: Lipid bilayer with embedded proteins controlling cell entry and exit.
Transport Processes:
- Passive Transport: No energy needed (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).
- Active Transport: Requires energy.
Cell Junctions: Enable adherence, communication, and resource sharing (tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes).

Energy Types:
- Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion.
- Potential Energy: Stored energy in structures, including chemical energy.
Laws of Thermodynamics:
- Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it changes form, increasing entropy.
Chemical Reactions:
- Exergonic: Release energy.
- Endergonic: Require energy, producing high-potential energy products.
ATP: Powers cellular work by coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions.

Photosynthesis: Converts solar energy to organic molecules and O2 from CO2 and H2O.
Cellular Respiration: Uses O2 to break down organic molecules, producing CO2 and H2O, releasing energy stored in ATP.
- Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose to pyruvate; yields 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
- Citric Acid Cycle: Processes pyruvate, producing NADH and FADH2, and releasing CO2.
- Oxidative Phosphorylation: Most ATP produced via electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

Occurs in chloroplasts with light reactions (ATP and NADPH production) and Calvin Cycle (sugar synthesis).
Photophosphorylation: H+ gradient drives ATP synthesis.

Cell division influenced by growth factors; regulated by a cell cycle control system.
Cancer: Uncontrolled cell division leading to tumors.
Chromosomes: Organizing genetic information; duplicated before division.

Mendel’s Laws: Describe inheritance patterns and segregation of alleles.
Sex-linked Inheritance: X-linked genes often affect males more due to recessive nature.

Bacterial Transformation: Griffith's experiment showed DNA can change bacterial traits.
DNA Structure: Watson and Crick’s model based on Franklin's work, leading to understanding DNA's role in heredity.

Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote: Differences in transcription and translation locations and processes.
Operons and Regulatory Proteins: Control gene expression in bacteria.