CLASSICAL Greece Lecture Notes

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT IN GREECE BEFORE DEMOCRACY

  • Basileus:

    • Means "king" or "monarch" who ruled city-states.

    • Multiple kings could coexist in a city, e.g., Sparta.

    • Originated as village chieftains during Mycenaean times and evolved into royalty by classical ancient Greece.

    • Eventually became subordinate to Greek aristocracy.

  • Aristocracy:

    • Defined as "rule by the best" of citizens with the best intentions for the polis (city-state).

    • A government led by a small number of privileged individuals.

  • Oligarchy:

    • Translates to "rule of the few".

    • Governed by a select group of people, generally viewed as exclusive but not necessarily negative.

    • Greek society shifted towards oligarchic rule away from monarchy.

  • Tyranny:

    • Defined as rule seized by an individual, often through overthrow.

    • Ancient Greece’s definition included the idea of "mob rule" or the "tyranny of the majority".

  • Democracy:

    • Known as "rule by many" or can refer to a system akin to a republic.

EVOLUTION OF GREEK GOVERNMENT

  • The governmental evolution followed this trajectory:

    1. Kingship (Monarchy)

    2. Oligarchy

    3. Tyranny

    4. Democracy

  • Kingship was replaced by oligarchy, usually by powerful clans.

  • Oligarchy led to tyranny as tyrants often originated from outside the oligarchy.

  • Tyranny ultimately yielded to democracy as a more inclusive political structure.

GREEK TYRANNY

  • The term "tyrant" in ancient Greece did not carry the negative connotations it does today.

  • Tyrants were often self-made monarchs supported by politically marginalized groups.

  • Example tyrants include:

    • Pheidon in Argos (c. 660 BC)

    • Kypselos in Corinth (657-585 BC)

    • Peisistratidai in Athens (560-510 BC)

  • Notably, Kypselos overthrew the existing oligarchy and granted more rights to the people.

  • His son, Periandros, later expelled dissenters from the polis.

GREEK GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE

  • Most Greek cities divided authority among multiple officials, contributing to a complex governance system.

GREEK SOCIAL CLASSES

  • Citizens: Males who could vote and hold office.

  • Residents: Free individuals protected under local laws but lacking voting rights, akin to modern-day "resident aliens".

  • Underclass: Comprising slaves, often due to debt or military defeat, with no central ethnic/racial discrimination involved.

ATHENS' GOVERNMENT

  • Arkhons: Governed for one-year terms, akin to governors.

  • The Council: Two primary councils; the Boule had significant power, while the Areopagos consisted of former Arkhons, functioning like a Supreme Court.

  • Assembly: Included all eligible voting citizens (women excluded).

DRACO

  • Created Athens' first written law code aimed at curtailing arbitrary punishments and blood feuds.

  • This code ended up benefiting the aristocrats by consolidating their political power while harshly punishing the lower classes.

  • Replaced by Solon in 594 BCE due to its severity.

SOLON

  • A wealthy Athenian trader (630-560 BC) entrusted with reforming Draco’s laws without land reform due to agricultural growth timelines (specifically, olive trees requiring 8-10 years).

  • Implemented reforms to reduce tyranny risks:

    • One-time cancellation of individual debts.

    • Freedom for individuals enslaved due to unpaid debts (referred to as Seisakhtheia).

  • Segmented the populace into four wealth-based tribes, each supplying 100 representatives to the Boule, enhancing potential for social mobility.

  • His measures sowed the seeds for future Athenian democracy,

KLEISTHENES

  • An aristocrat and reformer active from 570 to 508 BC, called upon to restore order after tyranny.

  • He created a new constitution entailing:

    1. 10 tribes representing all societal segments.

    2. Inclusion of all adult males in the Assembly.

    3. Introduction of ostracism to exile discredited leaders.

    4. Enforced equal laws and freedom of speech.

  • Expanded the Boule to 500 members, promoting geographical diversity among represented tribes to limit regional factional domination.

OSTRACISM

  • Introduced by Kleisthenes as a tool to prevent the rise of tyrants through potential exile lasting ten years based on citizen votes via pottery shards inscribed with names.

ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY

  • Under Kleisthenes’ reform, the basic political structure persisted for centuries, characterized by:

    1. Absence of professional bureaucrats—service limited to twice.

    2. Open eligibility for any citizen to hold office.

CLASSICAL GREEK CONCEPT - POLIS

  • Polis: Translates as "city" referring to city-states central to Classical Greece.

    • Root of many modern city names (Minneapolis, Indianapolis).

    • Each polis operated independently, without the unification seen in modern nations.

  • Some city-states would form federations for a combined influence, like the Delian League.

FORMATION OF POLIS

  • Synoikism: Refers to the process of smaller villages uniting to form larger polis, politically integrating multiple poleis.

STRUCTURE OF THE POLIS

  • Acropolis: The fortified inner structure typically housing the treasury, located atop a secure hill.

  • Agora: The public and commercial center where trading, ceremonies, and voting occurred.

HOPLITE

  • Heavily armored soldiers generally from the middle class, crucial in defending city-states.

  • Developed a military formation known as phalanx for collective defense.

PHALANX

  • A dense formation of hoplites, tightly packed and equipped with long spears.

  • Tactical advantage came from unit coherence and overlapping shields to form an effective defensive barrier.

  • However, difficult to maneuver on uneven terrain.

ATHENIAN EDUCATION

  • Education available for boys aged 7-18 in private institutions while girls were excluded from formal education, reflecting gender roles of the time.

SPARTA

  • Lykourgos: Credited with shaping Spartan government and society fostering a militarized citizenship that reinforced a warrior culture.

  • Rhetra: The ideological framework underpinning Spartan lifestyle and citizenship.

SPARTAN LIFE

  • Militarized focus evident from childhood: Male infants deemed unfit were discarded; boys trained from age 7 in the agoge system emphasizing military and survival skills.

  • Male citizens lived primarily in communal barracks to foster military loyalty, focusing on functionality rather than comforts.

SPARTAN WOMEN

  • Spartan women's freedoms relative to other Greek states, encouraged fitness for the purpose of producing strong offspring who could become soldiers.

  • Retained rights such as property inheritance but largely aimed at furthering Sparta's military ethos.

SPARTAN GOVERNMENT

  • Characterized as an oligarchy:

    • Kings: Dual kingship with ceremonial power and hereditary succession.

    • Ephors: More powerful than kings, function as administrators.

    • Gerousia: An advisory council of elders.

    • Assembly: Citizens could vote on policies but not propose legislation.

SPARTAN SOCIETY

  • Citizens: Known as Spartiates or homoioi, constituting the ruling class.

  • Perioikoi: Resident non-citizens or "dwellers around" the polis.

  • Helots: Agricultural laborers, akin to serfs, bound to land and responsible for providing food for Spartan families.

PERSIAN WARS

  • Overview: Greeks, particularly Ionians, rebelled against Persian rule, leading to significant wars to defend against Persian invasions.

  • Ionian Revolt (499 BC):

    • Triggered by cities like Miletus seeking support from mainland Greece. Athens and Eretria intervened, resulting in a Persian retaliatory attack.

MARATHON

  • Following the unsuccessful first invasion of 492 BC, the second invasion in 490 BC involved a Persian fleet seeking to attack Athens, met by the Athenian army led by Miltiades.

  • Outnumbered Greek forces (10,000) decisively defeated a much larger Persian army (60,000), culminating in a clash that famously demonstrated the effectiveness of the phalanx formation.

THERMOPYLAI

  • Xerxes’ massive forces faced a united but limited Greek front, highlighted by Spartan King Leonidas and a small Greek contingent who heroically resisted against overwhelming odds but ultimately fell to betrayal and Persian numbers.

SALAMIS AND PLATAIAI

  • The retreat of the Persian advance following the decisive setbacks at Salamis led to a significant victory for the Greeks, as they collectively repelled further invasions.

RESULTS OF THE PERSIAN WARS

  • Charges Athens with newfound dominance among Greek city-states, leading to the formation of the Delian League for both peaceful and military cooperation.

  • Athens began its transformation into an empire, controlling and organizing various Greek city-states post-war.

GOLDEN AGE OF ATHENS

  • Delian League Formation (478 BC): An alliance led by Athens with the treasury initially located at Delos.

    • Following victories over Persia, funds were redirected for Athenian infrastructure and military power growth.

    • The transformation from a naval alliance to an Athenian Empire ensued as tribute payments were misappropriated for Athenian extravagance.

THE AGE OF PERIKLES (460-429 BC)

  • Significant developments in democracy occurred, citizens engaged directly in governance, economic endeavors flourished, and cultural advancements blossomed.

PELOPONNESIAN WARS (431-404 BC)

  • The rivalry intensified between the Delian League (led by Athens) and the Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta) leading to prolonged conflict.

  • Athens faced eventual demographic and strategic challenges exaggerated by a plague and internal political turmoil.

WAR TACTICS

  • Athens' geographical disadvantages catalyzed a prolonged siege strategy while Sparta capitalized on land superiority.

  • Plague and subsequent losses led to shifts in Athenian leadership and military ambitions.

END OF WAR

  • Shifting allegiances and foreign supports, particularly by Persia, altered the balance with Sparta effectively dismantling Athenian power, ushering in oligarchy under the 30 Tyrants.

TURNING POINTS

  • Major factors included: 1. Death of Pericles 2. Failed Sicilian Expedition 3. Exiled leaders' influence (e.g., Alcibiades) 4. Persian financial support to Sparta leading to Athenian naval losses.

POST PELOPONNESIAN WAR

  • Greece transitioned towards a multipolar dynamic with weakened states recovering while Sparta's structural issues made it less prominent on the broader Greek stage.

  • The Battle of Luektrai (371 BC) initiated Theban dominance, signaling the decline of the formidable Spartan mythos, ultimately leading towards Macedonian ascendancy.